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Vol. 52, Issue 2, 269-324, June 2000
Institut Fédératif de Recherches Multidisciplinaires
sur les Peptides (IFRMP 23), Laboratoire de Neuroendocrinologie
Cellulaire et Moléculaire, Institut National de la Santé et
de la Recherche Médicale U413, Unité Affiliée au Centre
National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université de Rouen,
Mont-Saint-Aignan, France (D.V., B.J.G., M.B., L.Y., H.V.); and
Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique-Institut Armand
Frappier, Université du Québec, Pointe-Claire, Canada
(A.F.)
I. Introduction
II. PACAP
A. Discovery of PACAP
B. Secondary Structure of PACAP
C. Structure of the PACAP Precursor and Post-Translational
Processing
D. The PACAP Gene
E. Distribution of PACAP in the CNS
F. Distribution of PACAP in Peripheral Organs
G. PACAP in Tumor Cells
H. Ontogenesis of PACAP
I. Phylogenetic Evolution of PACAP
III. The PACAP Receptors
A. Pharmacological Characterization of PACAP Receptors
B. Biochemical Characterization of PACAP Receptors
C. Cloning of PACAP Receptors
D. Structure-Activity Relationships
E. Distribution of PACAP Receptors in the CNS
F. Distribution of PACAP Receptors in Peripheral Organs
G. PACAP Receptors in Tumor Cells
H. Ontogenesis of PACAP Receptors
I. Phylogenetic Evolution of PACAP Receptors
IV. Biological and Pharmacological Effects of PACAP
A. Effects of PACAP on the CNS
1. Actions on the hypothalamus.
2. Actions of PACAP on the pineal gland.
3. Behavioral actions.
4. Neurotrophic actions.
5. Actions on glial cells.
B. Effects of PACAP on the Pituitary Gland
Gonadotrope cells.
Somatotrope cells.
Lactotrope cells.
Corticotrope cells.
Thyrotrope cells.
FS cells.
Pituitary fibroblasts.
Melanotrope cells.
C. Effects of PACAP on the Thyroid Gland
D. Effects of PACAP on the Gonads
E. Effects of PACAP on the Adrenal Gland
F. Effects of PACAP on the Gastrointestinal Tract
G. Effects of PACAP on the Liver
H. Effects of PACAP on the Pancreas
I. Effects of PACAP on the Respiratory System
J. Effects of PACAP on the Cardiovascular System
K. Effects of PACAP on Immune Cells
L. Effects of PACAP on Bones
M. Effects of PACAP on Tumor Cells
V. Conclusion and Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) is a 38-amino acid peptide that was first isolated from ovine hypothalamic extracts on the basis of its ability to stimulate cAMP formation in anterior pituitary cells. PACAP belongs to the vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP)-glucagon-growth hormone releasing factor-secretin superfamily. The sequence of PACAP has been remarkably well conserved during the evolution from protochordate to mammals, suggesting that PACAP is involved in the regulation of important biological functions. PACAP is widely distributed in the brain and peripheral organs, notably in the endocrine pancreas, gonads, and respiratory and urogenital tracts. Characterization of the PACAP precursor has revealed the existence of a PACAP-related peptide whose activity remains unknown. Two types of PACAP binding sites have been characterized. Type I binding sites exhibit a high affinity for PACAP and a much lower affinity for VIP whereas type II binding sites have similar affinity for PACAP and VIP. Molecular cloning of PACAP receptors has shown the existence of three distinct receptor subtypes, the PACAP-specific PAC1 receptor, which is coupled to several transduction systems, and the two PACAP/VIP-indifferent VPAC1 and VPAC2 receptors, which are primarily coupled to adenylyl cyclase. PAC1 receptors are particularly abundant in the brain and pituitary and adrenal glands whereas VPAC receptors are expressed mainly in the lung, liver, and testis. The wide distribution of PACAP and PACAP receptors has led to an explosion of studies aimed at determining the pharmacological effects and biological functions of the peptide. This report reviews the current knowledge concerning the multiple actions of PACAP in the central nervous system and in various peripheral organs including the endocrine glands, the airways, and the cardiovascular and immune systems, as well as the different effects of PACAP on a number of tumor cell types.
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S. Tsunekawa, Y. Miura, N. Yamamoto, Y. Itoh, Y. Ariyoshi, T. Senda, Y. Oiso, and I. Niki Systemic administration of pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide maintains beta-cell mass and retards onset of hyperglycaemia in beta-cell-specific calmodulin-overexpressing transgenic mice Eur. J. Endocrinol., May 1, 2005; 152(5): 805 - 811. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. Falluel-Morel, D. Vaudry, N. Aubert, L. Galas, M. Benard, M. Basille, M. Fontaine, A. Fournier, H. Vaudry, and B. J. Gonzalez Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide prevents the effects of ceramides on migration, neurite outgrowth, and cytoskeleton remodeling PNAS, February 15, 2005; 102(7): 2637 - 2642. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. Fukuchi, A. Tabuchi, and M. Tsuda Activity-dependent Transcriptional Activation and mRNA Stabilization for Cumulative Expression of Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-activating Polypeptide mRNA Controlled by Calcium and cAMP Signals in Neurons J. Biol. Chem., November 12, 2004; 279(46): 47856 - 47865. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J C R Cardoso, D M Power, G Elgar, and M S Clark Duplicated receptors for VIP and PACAP (VPAC1R and PAC1R) in a teleost fish, Fugu rubripes J. Mol. Endocrinol., October 1, 2004; 33(2): 411 - 428. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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L. G Ermilov, P. F Schmalz, S. M Miller, and J. H Szurszewski PACAP modulation of the colon-inferior mesenteric ganglion reflex in the guinea pig J. Physiol., October 1, 2004; 560(1): 231 - 247. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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I. Harfi, S. D'Hondt, F. Corazza, and E. Sariban Regulation of Human Polymorphonuclear Leukocytes Functions by the Neuropeptide Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide after Activation of MAPKs J. Immunol., September 15, 2004; 173(6): 4154 - 4163. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. Bhattacharya, S. S. Lakhman, and S. Singh Modulation of L-type Calcium Channels in Drosophila via a Pituitary Adenylyl Cyclase-activating Polypeptide (PACAP)-mediated Pathway J. Biol. Chem., September 3, 2004; 279(36): 37291 - 37297. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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T. Mabuchi, N. Shintani, S. Matsumura, E. Okuda-Ashitaka, H. Hashimoto, T. Muratani, T. Minami, A. Baba, and S. Ito Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide Is Required for the Development of Spinal Sensitization and Induction of Neuropathic Pain J. Neurosci., August 18, 2004; 24(33): 7283 - 7291. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 U. Heberlein, F. W. Wolf, A. Rothenfluh, and D. J. Guarnieri Molecular Genetic Analysis of Ethanol Intoxication in Drosophila melanogaster Integr. Comp. Biol., August 1, 2004; 44(4): 269 - 274. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. Delgado, D. Pozo, and D. Ganea The Significance of Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide in Immunomodulation Pharmacol. Rev., June 1, 2004; 56(2): 249 - 290. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. Tomimoto, H. Hashimoto, N. Shintani, K. Yamamoto, Y. Kawabata, K.-I. Hamagami, K. Yamagata, J.-I. Miyagawa, and A. Baba Overexpression of Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide in Islets Inhibits Hyperinsulinemia and Islet Hyperplasia in Agouti Yellow Mice J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., May 1, 2004; 309(2): 796 - 803. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 T. Tenno, N. Goda, Y. Tateishi, H. Tochio, M. Mishima, H. Hayashi, M. Shirakawa, and H. Hiroaki High-throughput construction method for expression vector of peptides for NMR study suited for isotopic labeling Protein Eng. Des. Sel., April 1, 2004; 17(4): 305 - 314. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. J. Harmar, W. J. Sheward, C. F. Morrison, B. Waser, M. Gugger, and J. C. Reubi Distribution of the VPAC2 Receptor in Peripheral Tissues of the Mouse Endocrinology, March 1, 2004; 145(3): 1203 - 1210. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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K. J. Cummings, J. D. Pendlebury, N. M. Sherwood, and R. J. A. Wilson Sudden neonatal death in PACAP-deficient mice is associated with reduced respiratory chemoresponse and susceptibility to apnoea J. Physiol., February 15, 2004; 555(1): 15 - 26. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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G. Vlotides, K. Zitzmann, S. Hengge, D. Engelhardt, G. K. Stalla, and C. J. Auernhammer Expression of Novel Neurotrophin-1/B-Cell Stimulating Factor-3 (NNT-1/BSF-3) in Murine Pituitary Folliculostellate TtT/GF Cells: Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide and Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide-Induced Stimulation of NNT-1/BSF-3 Is Mediated by Protein Kinase A, Protein Kinase C, and Extracellular-Signal-Regulated Kinase1/2 Pathways Endocrinology, February 1, 2004; 145(2): 716 - 727. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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L. Fizanne, D. Sigaudo-Roussel, J. L. Saumet, and B. Fromy Evidence for the involvement of VPAC1 and VPAC2 receptors in pressure-induced vasodilatation in rodents J. Physiol., January 15, 2004; 554(2): 519 - 528. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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R. Xiao and Z. J. Cui Mutual dependence of VIP/PACAP and CCK receptor signaling for a physiological role in duck exocrine pancreatic secretion Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol, January 1, 2004; 286(1): R189 - R198. [Abstract] [Full Text]
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L. Akesson, B. Ahren, V. C. Manganiello, L. S. Holst, G. Edgren, and E. Degerman Dual Effects of Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide and Isoproterenol on Lipid Metabolism and Signaling in Primary Rat Adipocytes Endocrinology, December 1, 2003; 144(12): 5293 - 5299. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 M. Steinhoff, S. Stander, S. Seeliger, J. C. Ansel, M. Schmelz, and T. Luger Modern Aspects of Cutaneous Neurogenic Inflammation Arch Dermatol, November 1, 2003; 139(11): 1479 - 1488. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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C. C. Hegg, E. Au, A. J. Roskams, and M. T. Lucero PACAP Is Present in the Olfactory System and Evokes Calcium Transients in Olfactory Receptor Neurons J Neurophysiol, October 1, 2003; 90(4): 2711 - 2719. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 N. A. Hasaneen, H. D. Foda, and S. I. Said Nitric Oxide and Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide as Co-transmitters of Airway Smooth-Muscle Relaxation: Analysis in Neuronal Nitric Oxide Synthase Knockout Mice Chest, September 1, 2003; 124(3): 1067 - 1072. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 J. C. Reubi Peptide Receptors as Molecular Targets for Cancer Diagnosis and Therapy Endocr. Rev., August 1, 2003; 24(4): 389 - 427. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. P. Moore Jr., L. Wilson, A. C. Dalkin, and S. J. Winters Differential Expression of the Pituitary Gonadotropin Subunit Genes During Male Rat Sexual Maturation: Reciprocal Relationship Between Hypothalamic Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide and Follicle-Stimulating Hormone {beta} Expression Biol Reprod, July 1, 2003; 69(1): 234 - 241. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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L. Zhu, C. Tamvakopoulos, D. Xie, J. Dragovic, X. Shen, J. E. Fenyk-Melody, K. Schmidt, A. Bagchi, P. R. Griffin, N. A. Thornberry, et al. The Role of Dipeptidyl Peptidase IV in the Cleavage of Glucagon Family Peptides: IN VIVO METABOLISM OF PITUITARY ADENYLATE CYCLASE-ACTIVATING POLYPEPTIDE-(1-38) J. Biol. Chem., June 13, 2003; 278(25): 22418 - 22423. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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L. Grumolato, A. G. Elkahloun, H. Ghzili, D. Alexandre, C. Coulouarn, L. Yon, J.-P. Salier, L. E. Eiden, A. Fournier, H. Vaudry, et al. Microarray and Suppression Subtractive Hybridization Analyses of Gene Expression in Pheochromocytoma Cells Reveal Pleiotropic Effects of Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide on Cell Proliferation, Survival, and Adhesion Endocrinology, June 1, 2003; 144(6): 2368 - 2379. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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V. Simonneaux and C. Ribelayga Generation of the Melatonin Endocrine Message in Mammals: A Review of the Complex Regulation of Melatonin Synthesis by Norepinephrine, Peptides, and Other Pineal Transmitters Pharmacol. Rev., June 1, 2003; 55(2): 325 - 395. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 C. J. Montpetit, A. Shahsavarani, and S. F. Perry Localisation of VIP-binding sites exhibiting properties of VPAC receptors in chromaffin cells of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) J. Exp. Biol., June 1, 2003; 206(11): 1917 - 1927. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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Z. Liu, L. Geng, R. Li, X. He, J. Q. Zheng, and Z. Xie Frequency Modulation of Synchronized Ca2+ Spikes in Cultured Hippocampal Networks through G-Protein-Coupled Receptors J. Neurosci., May 15, 2003; 23(10): 4156 - 4163. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 K. Yamamoto, H. Hashimoto, S. Tomimoto, N. Shintani, J.-i. Miyazaki, F. Tashiro, H. Aihara, T. Nammo, M. Li, K. Yamagata, et al. Overexpression of PACAP in Transgenic Mouse Pancreatic {beta}-Cells Enhances Insulin Secretion and Ameliorates Streptozotocin-induced Diabetes Diabetes, May 1, 2003; 52(5): 1155 - 1162. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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D. Farini, A. Puglianiello, C. Mammi, G. Siracusa, and C. Moretti Dual Effect of Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase Activating Polypeptide on Prostate Tumor LNCaP Cells: Short- and Long-Term Exposure Affect Proliferation and Neuroendocrine Differentiation Endocrinology, April 1, 2003; 144(4): 1631 - 1643. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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Q.-Q. Sun, D. A. Prince, and J. R. Huguenard Vasoactive Intestinal Polypeptide and Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide Activate Hyperpolarization-Activated Cationic Current and Depolarize Thalamocortical Neurons In Vitro J. Neurosci., April 1, 2003; 23(7): 2751 - 2758. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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C. Guirland, K. B. Buck, J. A. Gibney, E. DiCicco-Bloom, and J. Q. Zheng Direct cAMP Signaling through G-Protein-Coupled Receptors Mediates Growth Cone Attraction Induced by Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide J. Neurosci., March 15, 2003; 23(6): 2274 - 2283. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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R. Yaka, D.-Y. He, K. Phamluong, and D. Ron Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-activating Polypeptide (PACAP(1-38)) Enhances N-Methyl-D-aspartate Receptor Function and Brain-derived Neurotrophic Factor Expression via RACK1 J. Biol. Chem., March 7, 2003; 278(11): 9630 - 9638. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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K. E. Mayo, L. J. Miller, D. Bataille, S. Dalle, B. Goke, B. Thorens, and D. J. Drucker International Union of Pharmacology. XXXV. The Glucagon Receptor Family Pharmacol. Rev., March 1, 2003; 55(1): 167 - 194. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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O. Skott Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide and adrenomedullary function Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol, February 1, 2003; 284(2): R586 - R587. [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. Lamouche and N. Yamaguchi PACAP release from the canine adrenal gland in vivo: its functional role in severe hypotension Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol, February 1, 2003; 284(2): R588 - R597. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. D. Payet, L. Bilodeau, L. Breault, A. Fournier, L. Yon, H. Vaudry, and N. Gallo-Payet PAC1 Receptor Activation by PACAP-38 Mediates Ca2+ Release from a cAMP-dependent Pool in Human Fetal Adrenal Gland Chromaffin Cells J. Biol. Chem., January 10, 2003; 278(3): 1663 - 1670. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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O. MASMOUDI, P. GANDOLFO, J. LEPRINCE, D. VAUDRY, A. FOURNIER, C. PATTE-MENSAH, H. VAUDRY, and M.-C. TONON Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) stimulates endozepine release from cultured rat astrocytes via a PKA-dependent mechanism FASEB J, January 1, 2003; 17(1): 17 - 27. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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L. Rachdi, J.-C. Marie, and R. Scharfmann Role for VPAC2 Receptor-Mediated Signals in Pancreas Development Diabetes, January 1, 2003; 52(1): 85 - 92. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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F. W. Wolf, A. R. Rodan, L. T.-Y. Tsai, and U. Heberlein High-Resolution Analysis of Ethanol-Induced Locomotor Stimulation in Drosophila J. Neurosci., December 15, 2002; 22(24): 11035 - 11044. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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L. L. Espey and J. S. Richards Temporal and Spatial Patterns of Ovarian Gene Transcription Following an Ovulatory Dose of Gonadotropin in the Rat Biol Reprod, December 1, 2002; 67(6): 1662 - 1670. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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G. Garrel, A. Lozach, L. K. Bachir, J.-N. Laverriere, and R. Counis Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-activating Polypeptide Stimulates Nitric-oxide Synthase Type I Expression and Potentiates the cGMP Response to Gonadotropin-releasing Hormone of Rat Pituitary Gonadotrophs J. Biol. Chem., November 22, 2002; 277(48): 46391 - 46401. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 T. Tsueshita, S. Gandhi, H. Onyuksel, and I. Rubinstein Phospholipids modulate the biophysical properties and vasoactivity of PACAP-(138) J Appl Physiol, October 1, 2002; 93(4): 1377 - 1383. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. L. Gray, N. Yamaguchi, P. Vencova, and N. M. Sherwood Temperature-Sensitive Phenotype in Mice Lacking Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide Endocrinology, October 1, 2002; 143(10): 3946 - 3954. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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