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Vol. 52, Issue 3, 375-414, September 2000
Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Departments of Medicine and
Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Thomas Jefferson University,
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (K.A.L., G.M.P., S.K., I.R.-S., J.P., S.S.,
K.P.C., S.A.W.); and Institute of Pharmacology, University of Catania
Medical School, Catania, Italy (G.M.P.)
I. Introduction
II. Guanylyl Cyclases
A. Molecular Biology
1. Identification of the Members of the Guanylyl Cyclase
Family.
2. Structure and Location of Guanylyl Cyclase Genes.
3. Genetic Disorders Associated with Guanylyl Cyclases.
B. Membrane-Bound Guanylyl Cyclases
1. Introduction.
2. Isotypes of Particulate Guanylyl Cyclases.
a. Natriuretic Peptide Receptors.
b. Intestinal Peptide Receptor Guanylyl
Cyclase.
c. Orphan Receptor Guanylyl Cyclases.
3. Structure of Particulate Guanylyl Cyclases.
a. Extracellular Domain.
i. Glycosylation of Receptors.
ii. Cysteines and Oligomerization of Receptors.
b. Transmembrane Domain.
c. Juxtamembrane domain.
d. Kinase Homology Domain.
i. Structure.
ii. Kinase Activity.
iii. Phosphorylation.
e. Hinge Region.
f. Catalytic Domain.
i. Dimerization of Catalytic Domains Is Required for Enzymatic
Activity.
ii. Determinants of Purine Specificity.
iii. Configuration of the Catalytic Site.
g. Carboxyl Terminal Tail.
4. Receptor-Effector Coupling and Particulate Guanylyl Cyclase
Function.
a. Interaction of Ligand and Receptor.
b. Oligomerization of Receptors.
c. Regulation by Adenine Nucleotides.
i. Allosteric Activation of Guanylyl Cyclases by
Nucleotides.
ii. Allosteric Inhibition of Guanylyl Cyclases by
Nucleotides.
d. Kinase Homology Domain.
e. Phosphorylation and Homologous and Heterologous
Desensitization.
f. Accessory Protein Regulation.
g. Model for Coupling of Particulate Guanylyl Cyclase Receptor and
Effector.
C. Soluble Guanylyl Cyclase
1. Subunit Structure and Isotypes of Soluble Guanylyl
Cyclase.
2. Domain Structure.
3. Regulation of Soluble Guanylyl Cyclase by Ligands.
a. Nitric Oxide.
b. Protoporphyrin IX.
c. Catalytic Mechanism.
d. Divalent Cations.
III. Cyclic GMP and Cell Signaling
A. Introduction
B. Protein Kinases
1. Cyclic GMP-Dependent Protein Kinases.
2. Cyclic AMP-Dependent Protein Kinases and Cyclic GMP
Signaling.
C. Cyclic Nucleotide-Gated Channels
D. Cyclic GMP-Regulated Phosphodiesterases
E. Cyclic GMP and Cell Physiology
1. Motility of Vascular Smooth Muscle.
2. Intestinal Fluid and Electrolyte Homeostasis.
3. Phototransduction.
IV. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Guanylyl cyclases are a family of enzymes that catalyze the conversion of GTP to cGMP. The family comprises both membrane-bound and soluble isoforms that are expressed in nearly all cell types. They are regulated by diverse extracellular agonists that include peptide hormones, bacterial toxins, and free radicals, as well as intracellular molecules, such as calcium and adenine nucleotides. Stimulation of guanylyl cyclases and the resultant accumulation of cGMP regulates complex signaling cascades through immediate downstream effectors, including cGMP-dependent protein kinases, cGMP-regulated phosphodiesterases, and cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channels. Guanylyl cyclases and cGMP-mediated signaling cascades play a central role in the regulation of diverse (patho)physiological processes, including vascular smooth muscle motility, intestinal fluid and electrolyte homeostasis, and retinal phototransduction. Topics addressed in this review include the structure and chromosomal localization of the genes for guanylyl cyclases, structure and function of the members of the guanylyl cyclase family, molecular mechanisms regulating enzymatic activity, and molecular sequences coupling ligand binding to catalytic activity. A brief overview is presented of the downstream events controlled by guanylyl cyclases, including the effectors that are regulated by cGMP and the role that guanylyl cyclases play in cell physiology and pathophysiology.
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