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Vol. 53, Issue 1, 1-24, March 2001
The John P. Robarts Research Institute and Departments of
Physiology, Pharmacology and Toxicology, and Medicine, University of
Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
I. Introduction
II. G Protein-Coupled Receptor Desensitization
A. Protein Kinase Phosphorylation
1. Second Messenger-Dependent Protein Kinases.
2. G Protein-Coupled Receptor Kinases.
a. The G Protein-Coupled Receptor Kinase Family.
b. Targeting and Regulation.
c. Site of Action.
3. Other Kinases.
B. The Arrestins
1. The Arrestin Family.
2. Receptor Binding.
III. G Protein-Coupled Receptor Internalization
A. Molecular Mechanisms Involved in G Protein-Coupled Receptor
Endocytosis
1. Role of G Protein-Coupled Receptor Kinase and 
-Arrestin
Proteins.
2. Clathrin and -Adaptin Interactions.
3. -Arrestin Regulation.
4. Alternative G Protein-Coupled Receptor Endocytic
Pathways.
5. Receptor Determinants for Endocytosis.
B. Biological Role of G Protein-Coupled Receptor Internalization
1. Endocytosis and G Protein-Coupled Receptor
Desensitization.
2. Endocytosis and G Protein-Coupled Receptor
Resensitization.
3. Endocytosis and G Protein-Coupled Receptor
Signaling.
IV. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs)
are seven transmembrane proteins that form the largest single family of
integral membrane receptors. GPCRs transduce information provided by
extracellular stimuli into intracellular second messengers via their
coupling to heterotrimeric G proteins and the subsequent regulation of a diverse variety of effector systems. Agonist activation of GPCRs also
initiates processes that are involved in the feedback desensitization of GPCR responsiveness, the internalization of GPCRs, and the coupling of GPCRs to heterotrimeric G protein-independent signal transduction pathways. GPCR desensitization occurs as a consequence of
G protein uncoupling in response to phosphorylation by both second
messenger-dependent protein kinases and G protein-coupled receptor
kinases (GRKs). GRK-mediated receptor phosphorylation promotes the
binding of -arrestins, which not only uncouple receptors from
heterotrimeric G proteins but also target many GPCRs for internalization in clathrin-coated vesicles. -Arrestin-dependent endocytosis of GPCRs involves the direct interaction of the
carboxyl-terminal tail domain of -arrestins with both -adaptin
and clathrin. The focus of this review is the current and evolving
understanding of the contribution of GRKs, -arrestins, and
endocytosis to GPCR-specific patterns of desensitization and
resensitization. In addition to their role as GPCR-specific endocytic
adaptor proteins, -arrestins also serve as molecular scaffolds that
foster the formation of alternative, heterotrimeric G
protein-independent signal transduction complexes. Similar to what is
observed for GPCR desensitization and resensitization,
-arrestin-dependent GPCR internalization is involved in the
intracellular compartmentalization of these protein complexes.
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 R. H. Moore, E. E. Millman, V. Godines, N. A. Hanania, T. M. Tran, H. Peng, B. F. Dickey, B. J. Knoll, and R. B. Clark Salmeterol Stimulation Dissociates beta2-Adrenergic Receptor Phosphorylation and Internalization Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol., February 1, 2007; 36(2): 254 - 261. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 S. J. Wilson, J. K. Dowling, L. Zhao, E. Carnish, and E. M. Smyth Regulation of Thromboxane Receptor Trafficking Through the Prostacyclin Receptor in Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells: Role of Receptor Heterodimerization Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol., February 1, 2007; 27(2): 290 - 296. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. Enquist, C. Skroder, J. L. Whistler, and L.M. F. Leeb-Lundberg Kinins Promote B2 Receptor Endocytosis and Delay Constitutive B1 Receptor Endocytosis Mol. Pharmacol., February 1, 2007; 71(2): 494 - 507. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J.-J. Liao, M.-C. Huang, M. Graler, Y. Huang, H. Qiu, and E. J. Goetzl Distinctive T Cell-suppressive Signals from Nuclearized Type 1 Sphingosine 1-Phosphate G Protein-coupled Receptors J. Biol. Chem., January 19, 2007; 282(3): 1964 - 1972. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. S. Siddiqui, Z. K. Siddiqui, S. Uddin, R. D. Minshall, and A. B. Malik p38 MAPK activation coupled to endocytosis is a determinant of endothelial monolayer integrity Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol, January 1, 2007; 292(1): L114 - L124. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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E. McCutchen, C. L. Scheiderer, L. E. Dobrunz, and L. L. McMahon Coexistence of Muscarinic Long-Term Depression With Electrically Induced Long-Term Potentiation and Depression at CA3-CA1 Synapses J Neurophysiol, December 1, 2006; 96(6): 3114 - 3121. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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H. W. Tedford and G. W. Zamponi Direct G Protein Modulation of Cav2 Calcium Channels Pharmacol. Rev., December 1, 2006; 58(4): 837 - 862. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 A. Vroon, C. J. Heijnen, and A. Kavelaars GRKs and arrestins: regulators of migration and inflammation J. Leukoc. Biol., December 1, 2006; 80(6): 1214 - 1221. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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C. Galet and M. Ascoli A Constitutively Active Mutant of the Human Lutropin Receptor (hLHR-L457R) Escapes Lysosomal Targeting and Degradation Mol. Endocrinol., November 1, 2006; 20(11): 2931 - 2945. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. Mangmool, T. Haga, H. Kobayashi, K.-M. Kim, H. Nakata, M. Nishida, and H. Kurose Clathrin Required for Phosphorylation and Internalization of beta2-Adrenergic Receptor by G Protein-coupled Receptor Kinase 2 (GRK2) J. Biol. Chem., October 20, 2006; 281(42): 31940 - 31949. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. Mashukova, M. Spehr, H. Hatt, and E. M. Neuhaus beta-Arrestin2-Mediated Internalization of Mammalian Odorant Receptors J. Neurosci., September 27, 2006; 26(39): 9902 - 9912. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. T. Drake, S. K. Shenoy, and R. J. Lefkowitz Trafficking of G Protein-Coupled Receptors Circ. Res., September 15, 2006; 99(6): 570 - 582. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. Policha, N. Daneshtalab, L. Chen, L. B. Dale, C. Altier, H. Khosravani, W. G. Thomas, G. W. Zamponi, and S. S. G. Ferguson Role of Angiotensin II Type 1A Receptor Phosphorylation, Phospholipase D, and Extracellular Calcium in Isoform-specific Protein Kinase C Membrane Translocation Responses J. Biol. Chem., September 8, 2006; 281(36): 26340 - 26349. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. L. Brown, V. R. Jala, S. K. Raghuwanshi, M. W. Nasser, B. Haribabu, and R. M. Richardson Activation and regulation of platelet-activating factor receptor: role of gi and gq in receptor-mediated chemotactic, cytotoxic, and cross-regulatory signals. J. Immunol., September 1, 2006; 177(5): 3242 - 3249. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. J. Mundell, M. L. Jones, A. R. Hardy, J. F. Barton, S. M. Beaucourt, P. B. Conley, and A. W. Poole Distinct Roles for Protein Kinase C Isoforms in Regulating Platelet Purinergic Receptor Function Mol. Pharmacol., September 1, 2006; 70(3): 1132 - 1142. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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C.-W. Lee, R. Rivera, S. Gardell, A. E. Dubin, and J. Chun GPR92 as a New G12/13- and Gq-coupled Lysophosphatidic Acid Receptor That Increases cAMP, LPA5 J. Biol. Chem., August 18, 2006; 281(33): 23589 - 23597. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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X. C. Li, O. A. Carretero, L. G. Navar, and J. L. Zhuo AT1 receptor-mediated accumulation of extracellular angiotensin II in proximal tubule cells: role of cytoskeleton microtubules and tyrosine phosphatases Am J Physiol Renal Physiol, August 1, 2006; 291(2): F375 - F383. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 N. J. Smith and L. M. Luttrell Signal Switching, Crosstalk, and Arrestin Scaffolds: Novel G Protein-Coupled Receptor Signaling in Cardiovascular Disease Hypertension, August 1, 2006; 48(2): 173 - 179. [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. D. Violin, X.-R. Ren, and R. J. Lefkowitz G-protein-coupled Receptor Kinase Specificity for beta-Arrestin Recruitment to the beta2-Adrenergic Receptor Revealed by Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer J. Biol. Chem., July 21, 2006; 281(29): 20577 - 20588. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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F. Jafri, H. M. El-Shewy, M.-H. Lee, M. Kelly, D. K. Luttrell, and L. M. Luttrell Constitutive ERK1/2 Activation by a Chimeric Neurokinin 1 Receptor-beta-Arrestin1 Fusion Protein: PROBING THE COMPOSITION AND FUNCTION OF THE G PROTEIN-COUPLED RECEPTOR "SIGNALSOME" J. Biol. Chem., July 14, 2006; 281(28): 19346 - 19357. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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B. W. Pickard, A. B. Hodsman, L. J. Fraher, and P. H. Watson Type 1 Parathyroid Hormone Receptor (PTH1R) Nuclear Trafficking: Association of PTH1R with Importin {alpha}1 and {beta} Endocrinology, July 1, 2006; 147(7): 3326 - 3332. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. Gonzalez-Arenas, B. Aguilar-Maldonado, S. E. Avendano-Vazquez, and J. A. Garcia-Sainz Estrogens Cross-Talk to {alpha}1b-Adrenergic Receptors Mol. Pharmacol., July 1, 2006; 70(1): 154 - 162. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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G. Scherrer, P. Tryoen-Toth, D. Filliol, A. Matifas, D. Laustriat, Y. Q. Cao, A. I. Basbaum, A. Dierich, J.-L. Vonesh, C. Gaveriaux-Ruff, et al. Knockin mice expressing fluorescent {delta}-opioid receptors uncover G protein-coupled receptor dynamics in vivo PNAS, June 20, 2006; 103(25): 9691 - 9696. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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R. Schiavo, D. Baatar, P. Olkhanud, F. E. Indig, N. Restifo, D. Taub, and A. Biragyn Chemokine receptor targeting efficiently directs antigens to MHC class I pathways and elicits antigen-specific CD8+ T-cell responses Blood, June 15, 2006; 107(12): 4597 - 4605. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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R. Frenzel, C. Voigt, and R. Paschke The Human Thyrotropin Receptor Is Predominantly Internalized by {beta}-Arrestin 2 Endocrinology, June 1, 2006; 147(6): 3114 - 3122. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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N. W. Kin and V. M. Sanders It takes nerve to tell T and B cells what to do J. Leukoc. Biol., June 1, 2006; 79(6): 1093 - 1104. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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N. J. D. McLaughlin, A. Banerjee, M. R. Kelher, F. Gamboni-Robertson, C. Hamiel, F. R. Sheppard, E. E. Moore, and C. C. Silliman Platelet-Activating Factor-Induced Clathrin-Mediated Endocytosis Requires beta-Arrestin-1 Recruitment and Activation of the p38 MAPK Signalosome at the Plasma Membrane for Actin Bundle Formation. J. Immunol., June 1, 2006; 176(11): 7039 - 7050. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. Dagan-Berger, R. Feniger-Barish, S. Avniel, H. Wald, E. Galun, V. Grabovsky, R. Alon, A. Nagler, A. Ben-Baruch, and A. Peled Role of CXCR3 carboxyl terminus and third intracellular loop in receptor-mediated migration, adhesion and internalization in response to CXCL11 Blood, May 15, 2006; 107(10): 3821 - 3831. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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Z. Kilianova, N. Basora, P. Kilian, M. D. Payet, and N. Gallo-Payet Human Melanocortin Receptor 2 Expression and Functionality: Effects of Protein Kinase A and Protein Kinase C on Desensitization and Internalization Endocrinology, May 1, 2006; 147(5): 2325 - 2337. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 A. M. Navratil, T. A. Farmerie, J. Bogerd, T. M. Nett, and C. M. Clay Differential Impact of Intracellular Carboxyl Terminal Domains on Lipid Raft Localization of the Murine Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone Receptor Biol Reprod, May 1, 2006; 74(5): 788 - 797. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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W. A. Yanfeng, C. Tan, R. J. Fagan, and P. S. Klein Phosphorylation of Frizzled-3 J. Biol. Chem., April 28, 2006; 281(17): 11603 - 11609. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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D. Gesty-Palmer, M. Chen, E. Reiter, S. Ahn, C. D. Nelson, S. Wang, A. E. Eckhardt, C. L. Cowan, R. F. Spurney, L. M. Luttrell, et al. Distinct beta-Arrestin- and G Protein-dependent Pathways for Parathyroid Hormone Receptor-stimulated ERK1/2 Activation J. Biol. Chem., April 21, 2006; 281(16): 10856 - 10864. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. Arttamangkul, M. Torrecilla, K. Kobayashi, H. Okano, and J. T. Williams Separation of {micro}-Opioid Receptor Desensitization and Internalization: Endogenous Receptors in Primary Neuronal Cultures J. Neurosci., April 12, 2006; 26(15): 4118 - 4125. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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