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Vol. 50, Issue 2, 265-270, June 1998

International Union of Pharmacology. XVIII. Nomenclature of Receptors for Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide and Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide

Anthony J. Harmara, Akira Arimura, Illana Gozes, Laurent Journot, Marc Laburthe, Joseph R. Pisegna, Stephen R. Rawlings, Patrick Robberecht, Sami I. Said, Sunil P. Sreedharan, Stephen A. Wank and James A. Waschek

MRC Brain Metabolism Unit (A.J.H) Royal Edinburgh Hospital, Edinburgh, Scotland; US-Japan Biomedical Research Laboratories (A.A.), Tulane University Medical Center, Belle Chasse, Louisiana; Department of Clinical Biochemistry (I.G.), Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, Israel; CNRS UPR 9023 (L.J.), CCIPE, F-34094 Montpellier, France; INSERM U 410 (M.L.), Faculté de Médecine Xavier Bichat, Paris, France; CURE:VA/UCAL DDRC (J.R.P.), West Los Angeles VA Medical Center, University of California, Los Angeles, California; Life Science Resources (S.R.R.), Abberley House, Great Shelford, Cambridge, England; Laboratoire de Chimie Biologique et de la Nutrition (P.R.) Université Libre de Bruxelles, Bruxelles, Belgium; School of Medicine (S.I.S.), State University of New York at Stony Brook, Stony Brook, New York; Department of Medicine (S.P.S.), Division of Allergy and Immunology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California; Digestive Diseases Branch (S.A.W.), NIDDK, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland; Department of Psychiatry and Mental Retardation Research Center (J.A.W.), University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California

I. Introduction
II. The VPAC1 Receptor
III. The VPAC2 Receptor
IV. The PAC1 Receptor
V. Proposed Nomenclature
VI. Unresolved Issues and Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References

    I. Introduction
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Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIPb) and pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) are members of a superfamily of structurally related peptide hormones that includes glucagon, glucagon-like peptide, secretin, and growth hormone-releasing factor (GRF). At least three receptors for PACAP exist in mammals, two of which are also high-affinity receptors for VIP. This report, prepared by the IUPHAR Subcommittee on Nomenclature for Receptors for VIP and PACAP, proposes a scheme of nomenclature for these receptors (table 1).

                              
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TABLE 1
Nomenclature of receptors for PACAP and VIP

VIP, first isolated from porcine intestine as a 28 amino acid peptide capable of inducing vasodilation in the canine femoral artery (Said and Mutt, 1970, 1972), subsequently has been shown to have many other actions as a neuroendocrine hormone and putative neurotransmitter. The presence of VIP and specific VIP binding sites in defined pathways in the brain indicates that it may play an important role in central nervous system (CNS) function (Besson et al., 1986; Martin et al., 1987). VIP also may promote neuronal survival (Brenneman and Eiden, 1986) and regulate glycogen metabolism in the cerebral cortex (Sorg and Magistretti, 1992). VIP stimulates prolactin secretion from the pituitary (Reichlin, 1988) and catecholamine release from the adrenal medulla (Malhotra et al., 1988); in the immune system it inhibits mitogen-activated proliferation of T cells by inhibiting interleukin-2 production (Ottaway, 1987). Other actions of VIP include stimulation of electrolyte secretion, smooth muscle relaxation, and protection against oxidant injury (Gozes and Brenneman, 1989; Laburthe et al., 1993; Said, 1991, 1996). In common with the precursors of several other neuroendocrine peptides, the VIP precursor polypeptide (prepro-VIP) contains sequences encoding additional biologically active peptides, including peptide histidine isoleucine (PHI; Tatemoto and Mutt, 1981), peptide histidine methionine (PHM, the human equivalent of PHI; Itoh et al., 1983), and peptide histidine valine (PHV), a C-terminally extended form of PHI and PHM (Yiangou et al., 1987). PHI, PHM, and PHV probably exert their actions through the same receptors as VIP; there presently is little evidence for the existence of distinct receptors selective for these peptides.

PACAP first was identified as a 38 amino acid peptide (PACAP-38) from ovine hypothalamus that stimulated adenylyl cyclase in rat anterior pituitary cells in culture (Miyata et al., 1989). Subsequently, a C-terminally truncated, 27 amino acid form of the peptide (PACAP-27) was isolated from the same source (Miyata et al., 1990). In the CNS, PACAP, and the messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) encoding its precursor are most abundant in the hypothalamus, with lower levels in many other brain regions (Ghatei et al., 1993). PACAP is also present in several peripheral tissues, including the gastrointestinal tract, adrenal gland, and testis (Arimura and Shioda, 1995; Ghatei et al., 1993). Although first isolated as a hypophysiotropic hormone, the role of PACAP in the regulation of pituitary hormone secretion is still poorly understood (Rawlings and Hezareh, 1996). However, in the CNS, PACAP released from retinal afferents to the rat suprachiasmatic nucleus has been proposed to function as a daytime regulator of the biological clock (Hannibal et al., 1997), and in the periphery, PACAP is thought to function as a noncholinergic neurotransmitter stimulating catecholamine secretion from the adrenal medulla (Przywara et al., 1996) and to regulate exocrine and endocrine secretion from the pancreas (Yada et al., 1994).

Ligand binding studies (Shivers et al., 1991) suggested the existence of at least two distinct receptors for PACAP, one with much greater affinity for PACAP than for VIP (the "PACAP type I receptor") and a second with high affinity for both PACAP and VIP (the "PACAP type II receptor"). Based on the relative potencies of natural and synthetic VIP analogues, it was later suggested that two types of high affinity VIP (PACAP type II) receptors existed in rat and human tissues. In addition to the "classical" VIP receptors from intestinal cells (Laburthe et al., 1983), a second receptor was identified in the human SUP-T1 lymphoblast cell line (Robberecht et al., 1988) and in lung cancer cell lines (Luis and Said, 1990). Subsequently, three high-affinity receptors for VIP and PACAP have been cloned.

    II. The VPAC1 Receptor
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The first recombinant receptor for VIP and PACAP to be identified was isolated from rat lung by Ishihara et al. (1992c); the human homolog of this receptor also has been cloned and expressed in cell lines (Couvineau et al., 1994; Sreedharan et al., 1993d). No splice variants of the receptor have been described to date. This receptor, originally described as the VIP receptor, subsequently was designated the VIP1 receptor (Lutz et al., 1993), the VIP/PACAP type II receptor (Ciccarelli et al., 1994), or PVR2 (Rawlings et al., 1995), and in our nomenclature is classified as the VPAC1 receptor. There are important differences between species in the pharmacology of VPAC1 receptors (Couvineau et al., 1996). When expressed in cell lines, the recombinant rat VPAC1 receptor recognized VIP (IC50, 1 nM), PHI, and PHV (IC50, 3 nM), PACAP-27 and PACAP-38 (IC50, 1 nM), and with lower affinity, GRF (IC50, 80 nM) and secretin (IC50, 300 nM). The human receptor differed from the rat receptor in its low affinity for PHI and PHV (IC50, 1000 nM and 3000 nM, respectively) and for secretin (IC50, 1500 nM). Two highly selective VPAC1 receptor agonists have been described. The VIP/GRF hybrid [Lys15, Arg16, Leu27]VIP(1-7)GRF(8-27)-NH2 (IC50, 1 nM) is a selective VPAC1 receptor agonist that does not activate GRF receptors (Gourlet et al., 1997b). [Arg16] chicken secretin (IC50, 2 nM: Gourlet et al., 1997b) is an agonist of both VPAC1 receptors and secretin receptors, but can be used as a highly selective VPAC1 receptor agonist in brain and in other tissues that do not express the secretin receptor. [Acetyl-His1, D-Phe2, Lys15, Arg16]VIP (3-7)GRF(8-27)-NH2 behaves as a selective antagonist of rat and human VPAC1 receptors (IC50, 1 to 10 nM; Gourlet et al., 1997a).

Messenger RNA encoding the VPAC1 receptor is widely distributed in the CNS, most abundantly in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus (Ishihara et al., 1992; Usdin et al., 1994), in peripheral tissues including liver, lung, and intestine (Ishihara et al., 1992; Sreedharan et al., 1995; Usdin et al., 1994) and in T lymphocytes (Delgado et al., 1996). The distribution in rat brain of binding sites for radioiodinated [Arg16]chicken secretin, a selective VPAC1 receptor agonist, is similar to that of VPAC1 receptor mRNA (Vertongen et al., 1997).

    III. The VPAC2 Receptor
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A second receptor that responds to VIP and PACAP with comparable affinity ("PACAP type II" pharmacology) first was cloned from the rat olfactory bulb by Lutz et al. (1993e) and later published independently by Usdin et al. (1994). cDNA sequences of the cognate mouse (Inagaki et al., 1994f) and human (Adamou et al., 1995; Svoboda et al., 1994g; Wei and Mojsov, 1996) receptors have been published. No splice variants of the receptor have been described to date. This receptor, previously designated the VIP2 receptor (Lutz et al., 1993), PACAPR-3 (Inagaki et al., 1994), or PVR3 (Rawlings et al., 1995), is classified in our nomenclature as the VPAC2 receptor. When expressed in cell lines, the recombinant rat and human VPAC2 receptors recognized VIP (IC50, 3 to 4 nM), PHI, and PHV (IC50, 10 to 30 nM), PACAP-27 (IC50, 10 nM) and PACAP-38 (IC50, 2 nM), and also recognized GRF and secretin with a very low affinity (IC50, 5000 to 30,000 nM). Two cyclic peptides that are highly selective agonists of the VPAC2 receptor have been described: Ro 25-1553h (Gourlet et al., 1997c), first developed as a bronchorelaxant and an anti-inflammatory agent (O'Donnell et al., 1994a,b) and Ro 25-1392i (Xia et al., 1997). No selective VPAC2 receptor antagonist has been described to date.

In the CNS, the highest concentrations of messenger RNA encoding the VPAC2 receptor are found in the thalamus and suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) and lower levels in the hippocampus, brainstem, spinal cord, and dorsal root ganglia (Sheward et al., 1995; Usdin et al., 1994). The distribution in brain of binding sites for the selective VPAC2 receptor agonist Ro 25-1553 is similar to that of VPAC2 receptor mRNA (Vertongen et al., 1997). The receptor is also present in several peripheral tissues, including pancreas, skeletal muscle, heart, kidney, adipose tissue, testis, and stomach (Adamou et al., 1995; Krempels et al., 1995; Usdin et al., 1994; Wei and Mojsov, 1996).

    IV. The PAC1 Receptor
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In 1993, Pisegna and Wank (1993j) reported the cloning and expression of a PACAP-selective (type I) receptor from the rat pancreatic acinar carcinoma cell line AR4-2J. Within a few weeks, several other groups independently reported the sequence of the rat receptor (Hashimoto et al., 1993; Hosoya et al., 1993; Morrow et al., 1993; Spengler et al., 1993; Svoboda et al., 1993) and complementary deoxyribonucleic acid (cDNA) sequences of the cognate mouse (Hashimoto et al., 1996b,k bovine (Miyamoto et al., 1994l), and human (Ogi et al., 1993m) receptors have been published. This receptor (previously the PACAP type I receptor or PVR1; Rawlings et al., 1995) is classified in our nomenclature as the PAC1 receptor. When expressed in cell lines, the recombinant rat and human PAC1 receptors recognized PACAP-27 and PACAP-38 (IC50, 1 nM) with higher potency than VIP (IC50, 1000 nM) and bound PHI, PHV, secretin, and GRF with even lower affinities (Ciccarelli et al., 1995; P. Robberecht, unpublished data). Maxadilan, a 61 amino acid peptide from sand flies, with no evident sequence homology with PACAP, activates PAC1 receptors with a high affinity (IC50, 1 to 3 nM) and does not have a significant affinity for VPAC1 or VPAC2 receptors (Moro and Lerner, 1997). The PACAP fragment, PACAP(6-38) is a potent antagonist of PAC1 receptors (Ki, 14 nM) and does not interact with VPAC1 receptors. However, it has a significant affinity for VPAC2 receptors (Dickinson et al., 1997). Messenger RNA encoding the PAC1 receptor is expressed predominantly in the CNS (most abundantly in the olfactory bulb, thalamus, hypothalamus, the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, and granule cells of the cerebellum; Hashimoto et al., 1993, 1996a; Spengler et al., 1993) and in the adrenal medulla (Moller and Sundler, 1996).

    V. Proposed Nomenclature
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The nomenclature in table 1 takes account of the following considerations: (i) the PAC1 receptor does not respond to physiological concentrations of VIP and hence the PVR nomenclature proposed by Rawlings (Rawlings et al., 1995) seems inappropriate for this receptor; (ii) the scheme permits the naming of any second PACAP specific receptor (encoded by a different gene) that may be identified as PAC2; (iii) the scheme minimizes possible confusion with the PVR1/PVR2/PVR3 nomenclature; (iv) the scheme accords priority to VIP, consistent with the fact that, when first cloned, the VPAC1 and VPAC2 receptors were named as receptors for VIP rather than PACAP; (v) the scheme minimizes possible confusion with vasopressin receptors, which an alternative (V1P, V2P) scheme that we considered does not.

    VI. Unresolved Issues and Conclusions
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There are several unresolved issues that may change our view of the receptors in this family and may lead to future changes in nomenclature. The discovery of any new receptors for VIP and PACAP, or of any novel endogenous ligands for these receptors, would lead us to re-evaluate the scheme of nomenclature proposed here.

Gozes and colleagues have described several VIP analogues with potent activity in vitro and in vivo including (i) a hybrid peptide, combining a portion of VIP with a portion of neurotensin, that antagonized some of the behavioral actions of VIP (Gozes et al., 1989; Hill et al., 1991), inhibited the growth-promoting actions of VIP on the mouse embryo (Gressens et al., 1993, 1994) and on a variety of cell lines (Lilling et al., 1994; Moody et al., 1993; Wollman et al., 1993), and inhibited binding of VIP to some cell types but not to others (Gozes et al., 1989, 1991) and (ii) a lipophilic analogue of VIP (stearyl-Nle17-VIP; Gozes et al., 1994) which has been reported to enhance survival of neurons in culture with 100-fold greater potency than VIP (Gozes et al., 1995) and to be neuroprotective in animal models of Alzheimer's disease (Gozes et al., 1996). The nature of the receptors through which these peptides exert their actions, whether novel or existing, remains to be established.

There is apparent heterogeneity of PAC1 receptors in tissues and cell lines, where two types of "PACAP type I" pharmacology have been observed: type IA receptors, with high affinity for both PACAP-27 and PACAP-38, and type IB receptors, with high affinity for PACAP-38 but low affinity for PACAP-27 (Robberecht et al., 1991; Shivers et al., 1991). The difference between the two receptor subtypes may reflect differences in G protein coupling and second-messenger mechanisms (Van Rampelbergh et al., 1996) or result from alternative splicing of PAC1 receptor mRNA (Pantaloni et al., 1996; Spengler et al., 1993). Unlike the VPAC1 and VPAC2 receptors, the PAC1 receptor has numerous splice variants for which no systematic scheme of nomenclature has yet been devised. Splice variants either containing or lacking each of two alternative exons ("hip" and "hop") exist within the part of the PAC1 receptor cDNA encoding the third intracellular loop. The "hop" exon exists in two forms ("hop1" and "hop2") as the result of the existence of two alternative splice acceptor sites three nucleotides apart. Thus, six possible splice variants which differ in their intracellular signal transduction pathways can be generated (Journot et al., 1995; Spengler et al., 1993). Four variants of the human PAC1 receptor (null, SV-1, SV-2, and SV-3) resulting from alternative splicing of sequences equivalent to hip and hop1 also have been described (Pisegna and Wank, 1996) and shown to differ in their ability to activate phospholipase C. In addition, splice variation in the N-terminal extracellular domain of the mouse PAC1 receptor, leading to a 21 amino acid deletion, has been reported to influence receptor selectivity with respect to PACAP-27 and -38 binding and to change the relative potencies of the two agonists in phospholipase C stimulation (Pantaloni et al., 1996). The significance of a novel PACAP receptor variant, designated PACAPR TM4 transmembrane domain IV), reported to differ from the previously cloned short form of the PAC1 receptor primarily by discrete sequences located in transmembrane domains II and IV (Chatterjee et al., 1996), remains to be established.

We hope that our proposals will gain acceptance and will facilitate the communication of new findings in this rapidly developing field.

    Acknowledgments
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We thank Drs. T.I. Bonner and S.P. Watson for liaison with the IUPHAR Committee on Receptor Nomenclature and Drug Classification (NC-IUPHAR) and Dr. D. Girdlestone for helpful advice and assistance.

    Footnotes

a Address for correspondence: Anthony J. Harmar, MRC Brain Metabolism Unit, University Department of Pharmacology, 1 George Square, Edinburgh EH8 9JZ, UK.E-mail: Tony.Harmar{at}ed.ac.uk.

c Genbank accession no. M86835

d Genbank accession no. L13288

e Genbank accession no. Z25885

f Genbank accession no. D28132

g Genbank accession no. L36566

h Ac-His1[Glu8, Lys12, Nle17, Ala19, Asp25, Leu26, Lys27,28, Gly29,30, Thr31]-NH2 vasoactive intestinal peptide (cyclo 21-25)

i Ac-His1[Glu8, OCH3-Tyr10, Lys12, Nle17, Ala19, Asp25, Leu26, Lys27,28] vasoactive intestinal peptide (cyclo 21-25)

j Genbank accession no. L16680

k Genbank accession no. D82935

l Genbank accession no. D17290

m Genbank accession no. D17516

    Abbreviations

cDNA, complementary deoxyribonucleic acid; CNS, central nervous system; GRF, growth hormone-releasing factor; mRNA, messenger ribonucleic acid; PACAP, pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide; PHI, peptide histidine isoleucine PHM, peptide histidine methionine; PHV, peptide histidine valine; SCN, suprachiasmatic nucleus; VIP, vasoactive intestinal peptide.

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A. O. L. Wong, W. Li, C. Y. Leung, L. Huo, and H. Zhou
Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide (PACAP) as a Growth Hormone (GH)-Releasing Factor in Grass Carp. I. Functional Coupling of Cyclic Adenosine 3',5'-Monophosphate and Ca2+/Calmodulin-Dependent Signaling Pathways in PACAP-Induced GH Secretion and GH Gene Expression in Grass Carp Pituitary Cells
Endocrinology, December 1, 2005; 146(12): 5407 - 5424.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


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J. Immunol.Home page
M. Delgado, E. Gonzalez-Rey, and D. Ganea
The Neuropeptide Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide Generates Tolerogenic Dendritic Cells
J. Immunol., December 1, 2005; 175(11): 7311 - 7324.
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J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther.Home page
H. Igarashi, T. Ito, S. A. Mantey, T. K. Pradhan, W. Hou, D. H. Coy, and R. T. Jensen
Development of Simplified Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide Analogs with Receptor Selectivity and Stability for Human Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide/Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide Receptors
J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., October 1, 2005; 315(1): 370 - 381.
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A. Contestabile, T. Fila, R. Bartesaghi, and E. Ciani
Cyclic AMP-mediated Regulation of Transcription Factor Lot1 Expression in Cerebellar Granule Cells
J. Biol. Chem., September 30, 2005; 280(39): 33541 - 33551.
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J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther.Home page
C.-M. Rangon, S. Goursaud, F. Medja, V. Lelievre, L. Mounien, I. Husson, P. Brabet, S. Jegou, T. Janet, and P. Gressens
VPAC2 Receptors Mediate Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide-Induced Neuroprotection against Neonatal Excitotoxic Brain Lesions in Mice
J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., August 1, 2005; 314(2): 745 - 752.
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C. Langlet, I. Langer, P. Vertongen, N. Gaspard, J.-M. Vanderwinden, and P. Robberecht
Contribution of the Carboxyl Terminus of the VPAC1 Receptor to Agonist-induced Receptor Phosphorylation, Internalization, and Recycling
J. Biol. Chem., July 29, 2005; 280(30): 28034 - 28043.
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D. K. Meyer, C. Fischer, U. Becker, I. Gottsching, S. Boutillier, C. Baermann, G. Schmidt, N. Klugbauer, and J. Leemhuis
Pituitary Adenylyl Cyclase-activating Polypeptide 38 Reduces Astroglial Proliferation by Inhibiting the GTPase RhoA
J. Biol. Chem., July 1, 2005; 280(26): 25258 - 25266.
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J Mol EndocrinolHome page
J C R Cardoso, M S Clark, F A Viera, P D Bridge, A Gilles, and D M Power
The secretin G-protein-coupled receptor family: teleost receptors
J. Mol. Endocrinol., June 1, 2005; 34(3): 753 - 765.
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I. Langer, C. Langlet, and P. Robberecht
Effect of inactivating mutations on phosphorylation and internalization of the human VPAC2 receptor
J. Mol. Endocrinol., April 1, 2005; 34(2): 405 - 414.
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J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther.Home page
W.-C. Chung and J. C. Kermode
Suramin Disrupts Receptor-G Protein Coupling by Blocking Association of G Protein {alpha} and {beta}{gamma} Subunits
J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., April 1, 2005; 313(1): 191 - 198.
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J. Appl. Physiol.Home page
R. T. Hinkle, E. Donnelly, D. B. Cody, R. J. Sheldon, and R. J. Isfort
Activation of the vasoactive intestinal peptide 2 receptor modulates normal and atrophying skeletal muscle mass and force
J Appl Physiol, February 1, 2005; 98(2): 655 - 662.
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EndocrinologyHome page
L. Akesson, B. Ahren, G. Edgren, and E. Degerman
VPAC2-R Mediates the Lipolytic Effects of Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide/Vasoactive Intestinal Polypeptide in Primary Rat Adipocytes
Endocrinology, February 1, 2005; 146(2): 744 - 750.
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Clin. Cancer Res.Home page
S. Schulz, C. Rocken, C. Mawrin, W. Weise, V. Hollt, and S. Schulz
Immunocytochemical Identification of VPAC1, VPAC2, and PAC1 Receptors in Normal and Neoplastic Human Tissues with Subtype-Specific Antibodies
Clin. Cancer Res., December 15, 2004; 10(24): 8235 - 8242.
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Pharmacol. Rev.Home page
K.-E. Andersson and A. J. Wein
Pharmacology of the Lower Urinary Tract: Basis for Current and Future Treatments of Urinary Incontinence
Pharmacol. Rev., December 1, 2004; 56(4): 581 - 631.
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Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol.Home page
C. S. Colwell, S. Michel, J. Itri, W. Rodriguez, J. Tam, V. Lelievre, Z. Hu, and J. A. Waschek
Selective deficits in the circadian light response in mice lacking PACAP
Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol, November 1, 2004; 287(5): R1194 - R1201.
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J. Neurosci.Home page
A. Nicot, T. Otto, P. Brabet, and E. M. DiCicco-Bloom
Altered Social Behavior in Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide Type I Receptor-Deficient Mice
J. Neurosci., October 6, 2004; 24(40): 8786 - 8795.
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J. Physiol.Home page
L. G Ermilov, P. F Schmalz, S. M Miller, and J. H Szurszewski
PACAP modulation of the colon-inferior mesenteric ganglion reflex in the guinea pig
J. Physiol., October 1, 2004; 560(1): 231 - 247.
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C. Grinninger, W. Wang, K. B. Oskoui, J. K. Voice, and E. J. Goetzl
A Natural Variant Type II G Protein-coupled Receptor for Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide with Altered Function
J. Biol. Chem., September 24, 2004; 279(39): 40259 - 40262.
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J. Itri, S. Michel, J. A. Waschek, and C. S. Colwell
Circadian Rhythm in Inhibitory Synaptic Transmission in the Mouse Suprachiasmatic Nucleus
J Neurophysiol, July 1, 2004; 92(1): 311 - 319.
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Physiol. Rev.Home page
K.-E. Andersson and A. Arner
Urinary Bladder Contraction and Relaxation: Physiology and Pathophysiology
Physiol Rev, July 1, 2004; 84(3): 935 - 986.
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Pharmacol. Rev.Home page
M. Delgado, D. Pozo, and D. Ganea
The Significance of Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide in Immunomodulation
Pharmacol. Rev., June 1, 2004; 56(2): 249 - 290.
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M. Delgado, A. Reduta, V. Sharma, and D. Ganea
VIP/PACAP oppositely affects immature and mature dendritic cell expression of CD80/CD86 and the stimulatory activity for CD4+ T cells
J. Leukoc. Biol., June 1, 2004; 75(6): 1122 - 1130.
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EndocrinologyHome page
G. Vlotides, K. Zitzmann, S. Hengge, D. Engelhardt, G. K. Stalla, and C. J. Auernhammer
Expression of Novel Neurotrophin-1/B-Cell Stimulating Factor-3 (NNT-1/BSF-3) in Murine Pituitary Folliculostellate TtT/GF Cells: Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide and Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide-Induced Stimulation of NNT-1/BSF-3 Is Mediated by Protein Kinase A, Protein Kinase C, and Extracellular-Signal-Regulated Kinase1/2 Pathways
Endocrinology, February 1, 2004; 145(2): 716 - 727.
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L. Fizanne, D. Sigaudo-Roussel, J. L. Saumet, and B. Fromy
Evidence for the involvement of VPAC1 and VPAC2 receptors in pressure-induced vasodilatation in rodents
J. Physiol., January 15, 2004; 554(2): 519 - 528.
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EndocrinologyHome page
L. Akesson, B. Ahren, V. C. Manganiello, L. S. Holst, G. Edgren, and E. Degerman
Dual Effects of Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide and Isoproterenol on Lipid Metabolism and Signaling in Primary Rat Adipocytes
Endocrinology, December 1, 2003; 144(12): 5293 - 5299.
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Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol.Home page
J. Hannibal and J. Fahrenkrug
Circadian rhythm regulation: a central role for the neuropeptide vasoactive intestinal polypeptide
Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol, November 1, 2003; 285(5): R935 - R936.
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EndocrinologyHome page
Y. Wang, A. O. L. Wong, and W. Ge
Cloning, Regulation of Messenger Ribonucleic Acid Expression, and Function of a New Isoform of Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide in the Zebrafish Ovary
Endocrinology, November 1, 2003; 144(11): 4799 - 4810.
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J. Itri and C. S. Colwell
Regulation of Inhibitory Synaptic Transmission by Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide (VIP) in the Mouse Suprachiasmatic Nucleus
J Neurophysiol, September 1, 2003; 90(3): 1589 - 1597.
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J. C. Reubi
Peptide Receptors as Molecular Targets for Cancer Diagnosis and Therapy
Endocr. Rev., August 1, 2003; 24(4): 389 - 427.
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S.-H. Lee and C. L. Cox
Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide Selectively Depolarizes Thalamic Relay Neurons and Attenuates Intrathalamic Rhythmic Activity
J Neurophysiol, August 1, 2003; 90(2): 1224 - 1234.
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R. L. Hauger, J. A. Olivares-Reyes, S. Braun, K. J. Catt, and F. M. Dautzenberg
Mediation of Corticotropin Releasing Factor Type 1 Receptor Phosphorylation and Desensitization by Protein Kinase C: A Possible Role in Stress Adaptation
J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., August 1, 2003; 306(2): 794 - 803.
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A. Couvineau, J.-J. Lacapere, Y.-V. Tan, C. Rouyer-Fessard, P. Nicole, and M. Laburthe
Identification of Cytoplasmic Domains of hVPAC1 Receptor Required for Activation of Adenylyl Cyclase: CRUCIAL ROLE OF TWO CHARGED AMINO ACIDS STRICTLY CONSERVED IN CLASS II G PROTEIN-COUPLED RECEPTORS
J. Biol. Chem., June 27, 2003; 278(27): 24759 - 24766.
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V. Simonneaux and C. Ribelayga
Generation of the Melatonin Endocrine Message in Mammals: A Review of the Complex Regulation of Melatonin Synthesis by Norepinephrine, Peptides, and Other Pineal Transmitters
Pharmacol. Rev., June 1, 2003; 55(2): 325 - 395.
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C. J. Montpetit, A. Shahsavarani, and S. F. Perry
Localisation of VIP-binding sites exhibiting properties of VPAC receptors in chromaffin cells of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)
J. Exp. Biol., June 1, 2003; 206(11): 1917 - 1927.
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DiabetesHome page
K. Yamamoto, H. Hashimoto, S. Tomimoto, N. Shintani, J.-i. Miyazaki, F. Tashiro, H. Aihara, T. Nammo, M. Li, K. Yamagata, et al.
Overexpression of PACAP in Transgenic Mouse Pancreatic {beta}-Cells Enhances Insulin Secretion and Ameliorates Streptozotocin-induced Diabetes
Diabetes, May 1, 2003; 52(5): 1155 - 1162.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


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EndocrinologyHome page
D. Farini, A. Puglianiello, C. Mammi, G. Siracusa, and C. Moretti
Dual Effect of Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase Activating Polypeptide on Prostate Tumor LNCaP Cells: Short- and Long-Term Exposure Affect Proliferation and Neuroendocrine Differentiation
Endocrinology, April 1, 2003; 144(4): 1631 - 1643.
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Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol.Home page
S. Lamouche and N. Yamaguchi
PACAP release from the canine adrenal gland in vivo: its functional role in severe hypotension
Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol, February 1, 2003; 284(2): R588 - R597.
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M. D. Payet, L. Bilodeau, L. Breault, A. Fournier, L. Yon, H. Vaudry, and N. Gallo-Payet
PAC1 Receptor Activation by PACAP-38 Mediates Ca2+ Release from a cAMP-dependent Pool in Human Fetal Adrenal Gland Chromaffin Cells
J. Biol. Chem., January 10, 2003; 278(3): 1663 - 1670.
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M. Delgado, J. Leceta, and D. Ganea
Vasoactive intestinal peptide and pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide inhibit the production of inflammatory mediators by activated microglia
J. Leukoc. Biol., January 1, 2003; 73(1): 155 - 164.
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Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol.Home page
W. R. Gower Jr., J. R. Dietz, R. W. McCuen, P. J. Fabri, E. A. Lerner, and M. L. Schubert
Regulation of atrial natriuretic peptide secretion by cholinergic and PACAP neurons of the gastric antrum
Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol, January 1, 2003; 284(1): G68 - G74.
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J. K. Voice, C. Grinninger, Y. Kong, Y. Bangale, S. Paul, and E. J. Goetzl
Roles of Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide (VIP) in the Expression of Different Immune Phenotypes by Wild-Type Mice and T Cell-Targeted Type II VIP Receptor Transgenic Mice
J. Immunol., January 1, 2003; 170(1): 308 - 314.
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G. Garrel, A. Lozach, L. K. Bachir, J.-N. Laverriere, and R. Counis
Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-activating Polypeptide Stimulates Nitric-oxide Synthase Type I Expression and Potentiates the cGMP Response to Gonadotropin-releasing Hormone of Rat Pituitary Gonadotrophs
J. Biol. Chem., November 22, 2002; 277(48): 46391 - 46401.
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J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther.Home page
H. Igarashi, T. Ito, T. K. Pradhan, S. A. Mantey, W. Hou, D. H. Coy, and R. T. Jensen
Elucidation of the Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide Pharmacophore for VPAC2 Receptors in Human and Rat and Comparison to the Pharmacophore for VPAC1 Receptors
J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., November 1, 2002; 303(2): 445 - 460.
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A. Nicot, V. Lelievre, J. Tam, J. A. Waschek, and E. DiCicco-Bloom
Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide and Sonic Hedgehog Interact to Control Cerebellar Granule Precursor Cell Proliferation
J. Neurosci., November 1, 2002; 22(21): 9244 - 9254.
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EndocrinologyHome page
M. A. Asnicar, A. Koster, M. L. Heiman, F. Tinsley, D. P. Smith, E. Galbreath, N. Fox, Y. L. Ma, W. F. Blum, and H. M. Hsiung
Vasoactive Intestinal Polypeptide/Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Peptide Receptor 2 Deficiency in Mice Results in Growth Retardation and Increased Basal Metabolic Rate
Endocrinology, October 1, 2002; 143(10): 3994 - 4006.
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K. Du, A. Couvineau, C. Rouyer-Fessard, P. Nicole, and M. Laburthe
Human VPAC1 Receptor Selectivity Filter. IDENTIFICATION OF A CRITICAL DOMAIN FOR RESTRICTING SECRETIN BINDING
J. Biol. Chem., September 27, 2002; 277(40): 37016 - 37022.
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K. Drahushuk, T. D. Connell, and D. Higgins
Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide and Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide Inhibit Dendritic Growth in Cultured Sympathetic Neurons
J. Neurosci., August 1, 2002; 22(15): 6560 - 6569.
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J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.Home page
G. Mazzocchi, L. K. Malendowicz, P. Rebuffat, L. Gottardo, and G. G. Nussdorfer
Expression and Function of Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide, Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide, and Their Receptors in the Human Adrenal Gland
J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., June 1, 2002; 87(6): 2575 - 2580.
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Mol. Endocrinol.Home page
I. Langer, P. Vertongen, J. Perret, M. Waelbroeck, and P. Robberecht
A Small Sequence in the Third Intracellular Loop of the VPAC1 Receptor Is Responsible for Its Efficient Coupling to the Calcium Effector
Mol. Endocrinol., May 1, 2002; 16(5): 1089 - 1096.
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DiabetesHome page
M. Tsutsumi, T. H. Claus, Y. Liang, Y. Li, L. Yang, J. Zhu, F. Dela Cruz, X. Peng, H. Chen, S. L. Yung, et al.
A Potent and Highly Selective VPAC2 Agonist Enhances Glucose-Induced Insulin Release and Glucose Disposal: A Potential Therapy for Type 2 Diabetes
Diabetes, May 1, 2002; 51(5): 1453 - 1460.
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C. Olsson
Distribution and effects of PACAP, VIP, nitric oxide and GABA in the gut of the African clawed frog Xenopus laevis
J. Exp. Biol., April 15, 2002; 205(8): 1123 - 1134.
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G. Dorsam and E. J. Goetzl
Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide Receptor-1 (VPAC-1) Is a Novel Gene Target of the Hemolymphopoietic Transcription Factor Ikaros
J. Biol. Chem., April 12, 2002; 277(16): 13488 - 13493.
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H. Igarashi, T. Ito, W. Hou, S. A. Mantey, T. K. Pradhan, C. D. Ulrich II, S. J. Hocart, D. H. Coy, and R. T. Jensen
Elucidation of Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide Pharmacophore for VPAC1 Receptors in Human, Rat, and Guinea Pig
J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., April 1, 2002; 301(1): 37 - 50.
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EndocrinologyHome page
F. Jamen, R. Puech, J. Bockaert, P. Brabet, and G. Bertrand
Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide Receptors Mediating Insulin Secretion in Rodent Pancreatic Islets Are Coupled to Adenylate Cyclase But Not to PLC
Endocrinology, April 1, 2002; 143(4): 1253 - 1259.
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FASEB J.Home page
J. K. VOICE, G. DORSAM, H. LEE, Y. KONG, and E. J. GOETZL
Allergic diathesis in transgenic mice with constitutive T cell expression of inducible vasoactive intestinal peptide receptor
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Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USAHome page
E. J. Goetzl, J. K. Voice, S. Shen, G. Dorsam, Y. Kong, K. M. West, C. F. Morrison, and A. J. Harmar
Enhanced delayed-type hypersensitivity and diminished immediate-type hypersensitivity in mice lacking the inducible VPAC2 receptor for vasoactive intestinal peptide
PNAS, October 31, 2001; (2001) 241503798.
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Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol.Home page
B.-Q. Teng, J. R. Grider, and K. S. Murthy
Identification of a VIP-specific receptor in guinea pig tenia coli
Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol, September 1, 2001; 281(3): G718 - G725.
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K.-E. Andersson
Pharmacology of Penile Erection
Pharmacol. Rev., September 1, 2001; 53(3): 417 - 450.
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DiabetesHome page
K. Filipsson, M. Kvist-Reimer, and B. Ahren
The Neuropeptide Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide and Islet Function
Diabetes, September 1, 2001; 50(9): 1959 - 1969.
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J. Hannibal, F. Jamen, H. S. Nielsen, L. Journot, P. Brabet, and J. Fahrenkrug
Dissociation between Light-Induced Phase Shift of the Circadian Rhythm and Clock Gene Expression in Mice Lacking the Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase Activating Polypeptide Type 1 Receptor
J. Neurosci., July 1, 2001; 21(13): 4883 - 4890.
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Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USAHome page
A. Nicot and E. DiCicco-Bloom
Regulation of neuroblast mitosis is determined by PACAP receptor isoform expression
PNAS, April 10, 2001; 98(8): 4758 - 4763.
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Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol.Home page
S. Lamouche and N. Yamaguchi
Role of PAC1 receptor in adrenal catecholamine secretion induced by PACAP and VIP in vivo
Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol, February 1, 2001; 280(2): R510 - R518.
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J. Immunol.Home page
M. Delgado and D. Ganea
Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide and Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide Inhibit Expression of Fas Ligand in Activated T Lymphocytes by Regulating c-Myc, NF-{{kappa}}B, NF-AT, and Early Growth Factors 2/3
J. Immunol., January 15, 2001; 166(2): 1028 - 1040.
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Cardiovasc ResHome page
R. J Henning and D. R Sawmiller
Vasoactive intestinal peptide: cardiovascular effects
Cardiovasc Res, January 1, 2001; 49(1): 27 - 37.
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Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab.Home page
K. Tornoe, J. Hannibal, T. B. Jensen, B. Georg, L. F. Rickelt, M. B. Andreasen, J. Fahrenkrug, and J. J. Holst
PACAP-(1-38) as neurotransmitter in the porcine adrenal glands
Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, December 1, 2000; 279(6): E1413 - E1425.
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S. Shen, C. Spratt, W. J. Sheward, I. Kallo, K. West, C. F. Morrison, C. W. Coen, H. M. Marston, and A. J. Harmar
Overexpression of the human VPAC2 receptor in the suprachiasmatic nucleus alters the circadian phenotype of mice
PNAS, October 10, 2000; 97(21): 11575 - 11580.
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Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol.Home page
D. G. Deavall, R. Raychowdhury, G. J. Dockray, and R. Dimaline
Control of CCK gene transcription by PACAP in STC-1 cells
Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol, September 1, 2000; 279(3): G605 - G612.
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S. Gräs, C. Hedetoft, S. H. Pedersen, and J. Fahrenkrug
Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Peptide Stimulates Acute Progesterone Production in Rat Granulosa/Lutein Cells via Two Receptor Subtypes
Biol Reprod, July 1, 2000; 63(1): 206 - 212.
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D. Vaudry, B. J. Gonzalez, M. Basille, L. Yon, A. Fournier, and H. Vaudry
Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide and Its Receptors: From Structure to Functions
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M. Figiel and J. Engele
Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide (PACAP), a Neuron-Derived Peptide Regulating Glial Glutamate Transport and Metabolism
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EndocrinologyHome page
M. L. Scaldaferri, A. Modesti, C. Palumbo, S. Ulisse, A. Fabbri, E. Piccione, G. Frajese, and C. Moretti
Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide (PACAP) and PACAP-Receptor Type 1 Expression in Rat and Human Placenta
Endocrinology, March 1, 2000; 141(3): 1158 - 1167.
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EndocrinologyHome page
Z. Hu, V. Lelievre, A. Chao, X. Zhou, and J. A. Waschek
Characterization and Messenger Ribonucleic Acid Distribution of a Cloned Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide Type I Receptor in the Frog Xenopus laevis Brain
Endocrinology, February 1, 2000; 141(2): 657 - 665.
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Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USAHome page
Z. Rekasi, J. L. Varga, A. V. Schally, G. Halmos, K. Groot, and T. Czompoly
Antagonistic actions of analogs related to growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) on receptors for GHRH and vasoactive intestinal peptide on rat pituitary and pineal cells in vitro
PNAS, February 1, 2000; 97(3): 1218 - 1223.
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Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol.Home page
Z.-L. Xiao, Q. Chen, J. Amaral, P. Biancani, and J. Behar
Defect of receptor-G protein coupling in human gallbladder with cholesterol stones
Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol, February 1, 2000; 278(2): G251 - G258.
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J. Exp. Biol.Home page
C Olsson and S Holmgren
PACAP and nitric oxide inhibit contractions in the proximal intestine of the atlantic cod, Gadus morhua
J. Exp. Biol., January 2, 2000; 203(3): 575 - 583.
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