Supplement articlePuberty and the emergence of gender differences in psychopathology
Section snippets
Pubertal status versus age in predicting psychopathology
The gender disparity with regards to rates of internalizing symptoms and disorders first appears in early adolescence [1]. Peripubertal girls, relative to boys, experience an increase in internalizing symptoms during early adolescence. Because puberty is developmentally the most significant milestone occurring during early adolescence, it is useful to examine whether the emergence of internalizing symptoms and disorders in peripubertal girls is more a function of age or of pubertal status. In a
Pubertal timing and psychopathology
After exploring the association between pubertal status and the emergence of internalizing symptoms in early adolescence, we now examine some of the potential factors conveying differential sensitivity. Although all girls go through puberty, only a minority of them will develop internalizing symptoms during that time. We and other researchers are examining what specific factors associated with puberty could engender a differential sensitivity for some girls but not others, with respect to the
Hormonal changes, puberty, and psychopathology
Because hormonal changes are so pronounced in puberty and differ between the sexes, do they account for the emergence of gender differences in internalizing disorders at puberty? Are particular girls more vulnerable to internalizing disorders at puberty because their hormone levels on the downstream effect differ from those of other girls?
Studies in pubertal girls have found varying, inconsistent associations between estrogen 10, 20, 21, testosterone 22, 20, gonadotropin 23, 24, and
Puberty and psychopathology by ethnicity
Ethnicity is another important factor that may predispose particular girls with a differential sensitivity to develop internalizing symptoms at puberty. Most studies investigating the association between puberty and internalizing symptoms disorders do not evaluate the potential effects of ethnicity 2, 3, 4, 5. However, the few that do evaluate ethnicity suggest that the meaning of puberty may vary by ethnic group. For example, the consequences of increased body fat during puberty may not be as
The relationship between victimization and psychopathology at puberty
Gender differentiated rates of sexual abuse are hypothesized to contribute to the gender differences in internalizing disorders that arise at puberty, which could also account for the differential sensitivity of particular girls [64]. To better understand existing research in this area, we sponsored a Consensus Conference to examine the link between victimization and gender differences in adolescent internalizing disorders. The conference’s multidisciplinary panel evaluated research on gender
Involvement with boys and weight concerns during puberty
One social factor that may contribute to differential sensitivity in certain girls, with regard to the development of internalizing disorders at puberty, is their relationship with boys. A relationship between dating and increased weight concerns has been reported in early adolescent girls. For example, in a middle school sample, girls who had begun dating engaged in more weight management practices than girls who had not started to date [76]. Dating predicted dieting and higher Eating
Broader relevance of this research
The 1994 Institute of Medicine’s report on reducing the risks for mental disorders states, “Mental health outcomes depend on interactions of risk and protective factors in the child, the family, and the wider environment. The nature, timing, severity, and length of particular risk factors and the gender, age, and cultural identity of the individual are all key variables in determining mental health outcomes. Risk factors that have a role in the etiology of a mental disorder may be
Acknowledgements
This research was made possible by grants from the NIMH (5R01 HD24779-05 and 5R01-MH45431-04), the Stanford Center on Adolescence and the W.T. Grant Foundation Faculty Scholars Award (Dr. Hayward).
References (83)
- et al.
Is psychopathology associated with the timing of pubertal development?
J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry
(1997) - et al.
Evolving self-image, age, pubertal manifestations, and pubertal hormonesPreliminary findings in young adolescent girls
J Adolesc Health
(1994) - et al.
Hormonal influences on aspects of psychological development during adolescence
J Adolesc Health Care
(1987) - et al.
The multiple interactional biological processes that might lead to depression and gender differences in its appearance
J Affect Disord
(1993) - et al.
Opposite modulatory effects of ovarian hormones on rat brain dopamine and serotonin transporters
Brain Res
(1997) - et al.
Sexual dimorphism of the developing human brain
Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry
(1997) - et al.
Sexual dimorphism of glucocorticoid binding in rat brain
Brain Res
(1985) - et al.
Reduced sensitivity to glucocorticoid feedback and reduced glucocorticoid receptor mRNA expression in the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle
Neuropsychopharmacology
(1997) - et al.
Adolescents perceptions of relative weight and self-reported weight-loss activitiesAnalysis of 1990 YRBS national data
J Adolescent Health
(1996) - et al.
Ethnic differences in the association between pubertal status and symptoms of depression in adolescent girls
J Adolesc Health
(1999)
Youth at riskAdolescents and maltreatment
Child Youth Serv Rev
Patterns of reported child abuse and neglect
Child Abuse Negl
The long-term sequelae of child and adolescent abuseA longitudinal community study
Child Abuse Negl
Age and gender differences in children’s and adolescents adaptation to sexual abuse
Child Abuse Negl
Pubertal stage and panic attack history in sixth- and seventh-grade girls
Am J Psychiatry
Is puberty a risk factor for eating disorders?
Am J Dis Child
Puberty and depressionThe roles of age, pubertal status and pubertal timing
Psychol Med
Menarche and the onset of depression and anxiety in Victoria, Australia
J Epidemiol Community Health
Variations in the pattern of pubertal changes in boys
Arch Dis Childhood
Pubertal timing, overweight, and psychological adjustment
J Early Adolescence
Satisfaction with body image for early adolescent femalesThe impact of pubertal timing within different school environments. Special Issue: Time of maturation and psychosocial functioning in adolescence
J Youth Adolesc
The study of maturational timing effects in adolescence.Special IssueTime of maturation and psychosocial functioning in adolescence
J Youth Adolesc
Biological and social contributions to negative affect in young adolescent girls
Child Dev
The effects of pubertal timing on body image, school behavior, and deviance. Special IssueTime of maturation and psychosocial functioning in adolescence
J Youth Adolesc
Pubertal timing and grade effects on adjustment. Special IssueTime of maturation and psychosocial functioning in adolescence
J Youth Adolesc
The social and psychological effects of puberty on white females
The psychological significance of pubertal changeSex differences in perceptions of self during early adolescence
Moving into AdolescenceThe Impact of Pubertal Change and School Context
Biological maturation and social developmentA longitudinal study of some adjustment processes from mid-adolescence to adulthood. Special Issue: Time of maturation and psychosocial functioning in adolescence
J Youth Adolesc
Psychiatric risk associated with early puberty in adolescent girls
J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry
Variation in maturational timing and adjustment in adolescence
Pubertal changes in hormone levels and depression in girls
Psychol Med
Effects of girls hormonal status on depressive and aggressive symptoms over the course of one year. Special IssueThe emergence of depressive symptoms during adolescence
J Youth Adolesc
Negative affect and hormone levels in young adolescentsConcurrent and predictive perspectives. Special Issue: The emergence of depressive symptoms during adolescence
J Youth Adolesc
Developmental processes in early adolescenceRelationships between adolescent adjustment problems and chronological age, pubertal stage, and puberty-related serum hormone levels
J Pediatr
Recent life events, cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone and the onset of major depression in high-risk adolescents
Br J Psychiatry
First-episode major depression in adolescents. Affective, cognitive and endocrine characteristics of risk status and predictors of onset
Br J Psychiatry
Hormones emotional dispositions, and aggressive attributes in young adolescents
Child Dev
Androgens, brain, and behavior
Am J Psychiatry
Distribution of androgen and estrogen receptor mRNA-containing cells in the rat brainAn in situ hybridization study
J Comp Neurol
Cited by (208)
Epidemiology of Body Dysmorphic Disorder and Appearance Preoccupation in Youth: Prevalence, Comorbidity and Psychosocial Impairment
2024, Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent PsychiatryNeural Correlates of the p Factor in Adolescence: Cognitive Control With and Without Enhanced Positive Affective Demands
2024, Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and NeuroimagingImpact of poly-victimization and resilience on anxiety: Delinquent and non-delinquent youth samples
2023, Children and Youth Services ReviewHomework, sleep insufficiency and adolescent neurobehavioral problems: Shanghai Adolescent Cohort
2023, Journal of Affective DisordersSex and age variations in the impact of puberty on cortical thickness and associations with internalizing symptoms and suicidal ideation in early adolescence
2023, Developmental Cognitive NeuroscienceAge dependent effects of early intervention in borderline personality disorder in adolescents
2024, Psychological Medicine