Effector | Arrestin | Reported Functions | References |
---|---|---|---|
Src family tyrosine kinases | Arr1 | ERK1/2 activation | Luttrell et al., 1999; DeFea et al., 2000a |
c-Src; c-Yes; c-Hck; c-Fgr; c-Fyn | Arr2 | Dynamin 1 phosphorylation | Miller et al., 2000 |
Arr3 | Exocytosis/granule release | Barlic et al., 2000 | |
Phosphorylation/destabilization of GRK2 | Penela et al., 2001 | ||
FAK phosphorylation | Galet and Ascoli, 2008 | ||
EGF receptor transactivation | Noma et al., 2007 | ||
Phosphorylation of β2 adaptin subunit of AP-2 complex | Zimmerman et al., 2009 | ||
c-Raf1-MEK1/2-ERK1/2 | Arr2 | Activation of cytosolic ERK1/2 | DeFea et al., 2000b; Luttrell et al., 2001 |
Arr3 | p90RSK phosphorylation | Seta et al., 2002 | |
Actin cytoskeletal reorganization/chemotaxis | Ge et al., 2003 | ||
ERK1/2 dependent transcription | Gesty-Palmer et al., 2005 | ||
Mnk1/eIF4E phosphorylation/protein translation | DeWire et al., 2008 | ||
ASK1-MKK4-JNK3 | Arr1 | Activation of cytosolic JNK3 | McDonald et al., 2000 |
Arr3 | Song et al., 2007 | ||
Arr4 | |||
PP2A-Akt-GSK3β | Arr3 | Activation of Akt | Goel et al., 2002 |
Inactivation of Akt/GSK3β | Beaulieu et al., 2005 | ||
Activation of β-catenin signaling | |||
SHP-1; SHP-2 | Arr3 | Inhibition of NK cell cytotoxicity | Yu et al., 2008 |
cAMP phosphodiesterases | Arr2 | Attenuation of cAMP signaling | Perry et al., 2002 |
PDE4D3; PDE4D5 | Arr3 | ||
Diacylglycerol kinase | Arr2 | Attenuation of PKC signaling | Nelson et al., 2007 |
Arr3 | |||
PI 4-Phosphate 5-kinase Iα | Arr2 | Control of GPCR internalization | Nelson et al., 2008 |
Arr3 | |||
Phospholipase A2 | Arr2 | Vasodilation and flushing | Walters et al., 2009 |
E3 ubiquitin ligases | Arr1 | Ubiquitination of β-arrestin2 | Shenoy et al., 2001 |
Mdm2; Nedd4; AIP4; TRAF6 | Arr2 | Stabilization of GPCR-arrestin complex | Shenoy and Lefkowitz, 2003 |
Arr3 | Increased p53-mediated apoptosis | Wang et al., 2003 | |
Inhibition of Toll-like receptor signaling | Wang et al., 2006 | ||
Stabilization of GPCR-arresti-ERK1/2 signalsome | Shenoy et al., 2007 | ||
GPCR ubiquitination and downregulation | Bhandari et al., 2007; Shenoy, et al., 2008 | ||
Ubiquitin-specific protease 33 | Arr3 | Deubiquitination of β-arrestin2 | Shenoy et al., 2009 |
Control of GPCR internalization | |||
N-Ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor | Arr2 | Control of GPCR internalization | McDonald et al., 1999 |
Ral-GDS | Arr2 | Cytoskeletal reorganization/granule exocytosis | Bhattacharya et al., 2002 |
Arr3 | |||
ARF6-ARNO | Arr2 | GPCR endocytosis | Claing et al., 2001 |
Arr3 | |||
Cofilin; Chronophin; LIM kinase | Arr3 | Actin cytoskeletal reorganization/chemotaxis | Zoudilova et al., 2007 |
Dishevelled 2 | Arr2 | Frizzled endocytosis and Wnt signaling | Chen et al., 2004 |
IκBα-IκB kinase α/β | Arr2 | Attenuation of NFκB signaling | Gao et al., 2004; Witherow et al., 2004 |
Arr3 | Fan et al., 2007 | ||
Kif3A kinesin motor protein | Arr2 | Targeting and internalization of Smoothened | Chen et al., 2004 |
Arr3 | Gli-dependent transcription | Kovacs et al., 2008 | |
Histone acetyltransferase p300 | Arr2 | Transcription of p27 and c-Fos | Kang et al., 2005 |
YY1 transcription factor | Arr2 | Repression of cdx4-hox transcription | Yue et al., 2009 |
FAK, focal adhesion kinase; eIF, eukaryotic initiation factor.