Model | Species/ Preparation | Seizure Susceptibility | EEG Recording | Animals with Epilepsy (%) | Latency to SRS | Seizure Frequency | Seizure Duration | Epileptiform Spiking, Discharges, HFOs | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Parasagittal FPI | |||||||||
Rat: Sprague Dawley, young male; 3.75–4 atm | N/A | 14 wks continuous recording beginning 2 wks postinjury | Probability of 92% epilepsy | 2–4 weeks | N/A | N/A | N/A | D'Ambrosio et al., 2004 | |
Rat: Sprague Dawley, young male; 3.75–4 atm | N/A | 8 hr/rat/week for 30 wks beginning 2 wks postinjury | Probability of 100% epilepsy | 3–5 weeks | 4.1 ±1 seizures/week | 4.2–11.8 s | N/A | D'Ambrosio et al., 2005 | |
Rat; Sprague Dawley, young male; 1.8–2.2 atm | Increased susceptibility to PTZ-induced seizures at 12 wks postinjury | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | Atkins et al., 2010 | |
Rat: Sprague Dawley, adult young male; 1.9–2.1 atm | Increased susceptibility to PTZ-induced seizures at 2 weeks postinjury | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | Bao et al., 2011 | |
Rat: Sprague Dawley, young male; 2.0 or 3.4 atm | N/A | Up to 17 weeks continuous recording, beginning 2 wks postinjury | Probability of 100% epilepsy | 2–18 weeks | 0.6 –3.0/hr | 1–144 s | N/A | Curia et al., 2011 | |
Rat: Sprague Dawley, young male; 3.4–3.7 atm | N/A | 1–2 24 hr recordings/rat/week for up to 2.5 months postinjury | N/A | 2–5 weeks | 0.25–1.75 seizures/hr | 1 s–4.5 min | N/A | D'Ambrosio et al., 2013 | |
Rat: Wistar, adult male | N/A | 2 wks continuous recording beginning 1wk postinjury | 30% | N/A | 6.3 seizures in 2 wks | 52.9 s | 11.5 discharges in 2 wks | Shultz et al., 2013 | |
Rat: Sprague Dawley, adult male; 2.0 or 3.4 atm | N/A | Up to 12 months continuous recording, beginning 2 wks postinjury | 0% | N/A | N/A | N/A | Spike/wave discharges observed in both sham and injured rats. No epileptiform discharges/spikes observed in injured or sham rats. | Rodgers et al., 2015 | |
Rat: Sprague Dawley, young male; 1.8 atm | N/A | Random increments of 12 hrs on/12 hrs off for 1–14 wks postinjury | 25% | 4–7 weeks | 2.83 seizures/week | Mean = 47.5 s | Interictal spikes observed in 58.3% of rats | Nemes et al., 2016 | |
Lateral FPI | |||||||||
Rat: Sprague Dawley, adult male; 0.5–1.2 atm, 1.5–1.6 atm, or 2.0–2.2 atm | Increased granule cell hyperexcitability at 1 wk postinjury | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | Lowenstein et al., 1992 | |
Rat: Sprague Dawley, adult male; 2.0 atm | Increased inhibition in dentate gyrus at 15 days postinjury | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | Reeves et al., 1997 | |
Rat: Sprague Dawley, adult male; 2.6–3.3 atm | Increased susceptibility to PTZ-induced seizures at 12 months postinjury | 4–7 wks continuous recording intervals for up to 12 months postinjury | 46% | 4–11 weeks | 0.3 seizures/day | Mean = 137 ± 57 s | Interictal spikes observed in epileptic rats | Kharatishvili et al., 2006 | |
Rat: Sprague Dawley, adult male; 2.3–3.2 atm | Increased susceptibility to PTZ-induced seizures at 12 months postinjury | 3 wks continuous recording at 11 months postinjury | 0% | N/A | N/A | N/A | Isolated spiking observed in 80% of TBI rats | Kharatishvili et al., 2007 | |
Rat: Wistar, P21; 2.0–2.2 atm | Increased susceptibility to kainate-induced seizures at 6 wks postinjury | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | Echegoyen et al., 2009 | |
Rat: Sprague Dawley, P21 male; 2.2 atm | No change in PTZ susceptibility at 20 wks postinjury | Behavioral observation | 0% | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | Gurkoff et al., 2009 | |
Rat: Sprague Dawley, adult male; 1.8–2.2 atm | Increased susceptibility to PTZ-induced seizures at 12 wks post-TBI | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | Atkins et al., 2010 | |
Rat: Sprague Dawley, adult male; 2.2 atm | No change in fluorothyl-induced seizures at 3 and 6 wks postinjury | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | Schwartzkroin et al., 2010 | |
Mouse: C57BL/6S, adult male; 2.8–3.0 atm | Increased susceptibility to PTZ-induced seizures at 6 months postinjury | Three 2-wk continuous recordings at 6 m and 9 m post-TBI | 3% (1/30) | N/A | 1 total seizure recorded during observation period | 91 s | Observed epileptiform spiking in 71% injured mice | Bolkvadze and Pitkänen, 2012 | |
Rat: Long-Evans, adult male; 2.2–2.4 atm | N/A | Continuous recording for 12 wks at 3 months postinjury | 100% | N/A | 151 ±44 seizures/hr | 10–60 s | N/A | Goodrich et al., 2013 | |
Mouse: C57BL/6S, adult male; 1.5–1.7 atm | Increased susceptibility to PTZ-induced seizures at 1month postinjury | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | Mukherjee et al., 2013 | |
Rat: Wistar, adult male; 3.2–3.5 atm | N/A | 2 wks continuous recording at 1 wk postinjury | 30% | N/A | Mean = 6.3 seizures/rat over 2 wks | Mean = 52.9 s | Observed epileptic discharges in 22% of injured rats | Shultz et al., 2013 | |
Rat: Sprague Dawley, adult male; 2.4–2.8 atm | N/A | Up to 50 total hrs of continuous recording per rat at 5–33 wks post-TBI | 94% (16/17) incidence of nonconvulsive and 20% (1/5) convulsive seizures | N/A | 7/hrs nonconvulsive seizures; 0.05/hr convulsive seizures | 78–110 s | N/A | Campbell et al., 2014 | |
Rat: Sprague Dawley, adult male; 3.2–3.5 atm | N/A | Continuous recording up to 26 weeks post-TBI, divided into early, intermediate, and late recording groups | 50% at 1 year follow-up | N/A | N/A | 14–30 s | HFOs observed in 71% epileptic rats | Reid et al., 2016 | |
Rat: Sprague Sawley, adult male; 2.8–3.3 atm | Increased susceptibility to PTZ-induced seizures at 6 wks postinjury | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | Wang et al., 2016b | |
Rat: Sprague Dawley, adult male; 2.8–3.3 atm | N/A | Intermittent recording of 24 hrs every 2 wks, up to 12 months postinjury | 55% | 2 weeks–10 months | Mean = 6 seizures/rat | N/A | N/A | Wang et al., 2016d | |
Rat: Sprague Dawley, young adult; mild: 1.2–1.5 atm, moderate: 1.8–2.2 atm, severe: 2.4–3.0 atm | N/A | 1 year after injury, rats were recorded in 1 hr ECoG increments | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | Greater spike/wave discharges observed in TBI rats | Sick et al., 2017 | |
Rat: Wistar, adult male; 2.8–3.2 atm | Increased susceptibility to PTZ-induced seizures at 46 days post-TBI | Intermittent recordings of 48 hrs every wk at 2–5 wks post-TBI | 62.50% | N/A | Mean = 7.8 seizures/rat | N/A | Higher frequency and power of spike-wave discharges and spiking observed in TBI versus sham rats | Smith et al., 2018 | |
Central FPI | |||||||||
Rat: Sprague Dawley, adult male; 2.1 atm + PTZ kindling | Sham and injured rats developed an equivalent convulsant response to PTZ. | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | Hamm et al., 1995 | |
CCI | |||||||||
Rat: Sprague Dawley, P17; 2.0 mm depth | No change in threshold for tonic hind limb extension or minimal clonic seizures at P34–40; reduced threshold for minimal clonic seizures at P60–63 | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | Statler et al., 2008 | |
Mouse: CD-1, adult; 0.5 or 1.0 mm depth | N/A | Random 1–2 hr intervals of recording, up to 18 hrs total per mouse, beginning 42 days post-TBI | 20% (0.5 mm); 36% (1.0 mm) | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | Hunt et al., 2009 | |
Rat: Sprague Dawley, P17; 2.0 mm depth | N/A | Continuous recording in 2-8 wk epochs for up to 3 months, beginning 4–8 months post-TBI | 13% (1/8) | N/A | N/A | 45-60 s | Observed EEG spiking in 87.5% injured rats | Statler et al., 2009 | |
Mouse: CD-1, adult; 1.0 mm depth | N/A | Random 1–2 hr intervals totaling 4–6hr/wks up to 10 wks post-TBI | 40% | 6.5 ±1.3 weeks | N/A | N/A | N/A | Hunt et al., 2010 | |
Mouse: C57BL/6S, adult male; 0.5 mm depth | Increased susceptibility to PTZ-induced seizures at 6 months postinjury | Three 2-wk continous recordings at 6m and 9m postTBI | 9% | N/A | 0.25/day | 50 ±14 s | Observed epileptiform spiking in 81% injured mice | Bolkvadze and Pitkänen, 2012 | |
Mouse: CD-1, adult male; 2.0 mm depth | N/A | Continuous recording for 16 wks post-TBI | 50% of untreated TBI mice | 82.3 10.2 days | 0.55 ±0.16 seizures/day | 35.5 ±2.8 s | Interictal spike discharges were seen in some TBI mice | Guo et al., 2013 | |
Mouse: Plau deficient on C57BL/6J background, adult male; 0.5 mm depth | Both wild-type and Plau mice demonstrated increased susceptibiity to PTZ-induced seizures compared with shams | 2 wks continuous recording at 6 or 8 months post-TBI | 0% of wild-type or Plau mice | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | Bolkvadze et al., 2015 | |
Mouse: CD-1, adult male; 1.0 mm depth | N/A | Random 1–2hr intervals totaling 6hrs/wk at 6–10 wks post-TBI | 40% | N/A | N/A | >30 s | N/A | Butler et al., 2015 | |
Rat: Sprague Dawley, adult male; 2.8 mm depth | N/A | Week-long recordings up to 619 days post-TBI in some rats | 20% | N/A | N/A | 32 ±3 s (nonconvulsive); 91 ±12 (convulsive) | N/A | Kelly et al., 2015 | |
Mouse: PlauR deficient on C57BL6/J background, adult male; 0.5 mm depth | Sham and injured mice developed an equivalent convulsant response to PTZ | 2 wks continuous recording at 12 wks post-TBI | 14% (1/6) wild-type mice | N/A | 1 observed seizure in 2 wks | 33 s | N/A | Bolkvadze et al., 2016 | |
Rat: Wistar, adult male; 2.0 mm depth + PTZ kindling | Accelerated PTZ kindling compared with sham | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | Eslami et al., 2016 | |
Mouse: APP/PS1 on C57BL/6 background, adult male; 0.5 mm depth | N/A | 2 wks continuous recording at 6 or 14 wks post-TBI | 11% wild-type TBI mice; 88% APP/PS TBI mice | N/A | 0.47/day | 35 s | N/A | Miszczuk et al., 2016 | |
Mouse: C57BL/6, adult male; 1.0 mm depth | Increased firing of LV pyramidal cells within 1-2 mm of lesion core at 14 days post-TBI | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | Ping and Jin, 2016b | |
Mouse: C57BL/6, adult male; 1.0 mm depth | Increased susceptibility to PTZ-induced seizures at 3 days postinjury | Random 30 min recordings at 0, 3, or 24 hrs after TBI | 74% mice experienced immediate post-traumatic seizures | <24 hr | N/A | N/A | N/A | Wang et al., 2017 | |
Mouse: C57BL/6S, adult male; 0.5 mm depth | Increased susceptibility to PTZ-induced seizures at 14 wks postinjury | 2 wks continuous recording at 10 wks postinjury | 10% | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | Pijet et al., 2018 | |
Rat: Sprague Dawley, adult male; 2.5–3.0 mm depth | N/A | Undefined intermittent recording parameters, up to 17 months post-TBI | 20.3% | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | Sun et al., 2018 | |
Mouse: CD1, adult male; 1.0 mm depth | N/A | 1 wk continuous recording at 7, 14, 30, 60, or 90 days post-TBI | 27.80% | N/A | 0.43–0.71 seizures/day | N/A | N/A | Szu et al., 2020 | |
Mouse: C57BL/6, adult male; 1.0 or 2.0 mm depth | N/A | Continuous recording for up to 4 months post-TBI, starting 10 days post-TBI | 33% (1.0 mm); 87% (2.0 mm) | 19.5 ±3 days (1.0 mm); 52.9 ±8 days (2.0 mm) | 0–2.74 seizures/day (1.0 mm); 0–4.17 seizures/day (2.0 mm) | 10–90 s | Epileptiform discharges observed in 42% (1.0 mm) and 87% (2.0 mm) TBI mice | Golub and Reddy, 2022 | |
Weight Drop | |||||||||
Rat: Sprague Dawley, adult male; 20 g weight at 20 cm | Increased susceptibility to PTZ-induced seizures at 15 days or 7 weeks | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | Golarai et al., 2001 | |
Adult CD1 mice, male: closed skull injury + electroconvulsive shock 1 wk post-TBI | Increased susceptibility to PTZ-induced seizures at 15 days or 7 weeks | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | Chrzaszcz et al., 2010 | |
Rat: Sprague Dawley, adult male; 50g weight at 60cm + PTZ administration on days 7 and 21 post-TBI | Animals subjected to both TBI and PTZ showed higher sensitivity to PTZ-induced seizures than noninjured PTZ-only rats | 1.5 hr recordings on days 7 and 21 post-TBI during PTZ testing | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | Efendioglu et al., 2020 | |
Mouse: C57BL/6, adult; 100 g weight at 50 cm | N/A | Continuous recording up to 107 days post-TBI, starting 4 days post-TBI | 50% | >3 weeks | 1–11 seizures/mouse during observation period | 12–15 s | N/A | Shandra and Robel, 2020 | |
Mouse: C57BL/6, adult male; closed skull, 50g weight at 80cm | Increased susceptibility to pilocarpine-induced seizures and status epilepticus | N/A; observational scoring | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | Ben Shimon et al., 2020 | |
Penetrating and Blast Injury | |||||||||
Rat: Sprague Dawley, adult; 0.48, 0.63, or 0.7 cm balloon diameter | N/A | 72 hrs continuous recording at time of injury and 2 hrs recording on days 7 and 14 post-TBI | 13% (mild); 39% (moderate); 59% (severe) | Immediate seizures; N/A | 3.8 ±0.8 seizures/rat in 72 hrs (moderate); 10.5 ±2.6 seizures/rat in 72 hrs (severe) | 31.4 ±9.6 s (moderate); 33.6 ±5.0 s (severe) | Epileptiform discharges observed in 30% (moderate) and 65% (severe) TBI animals | Lu et al., 2011 | |
Rat: Sprague Dawley, adult male; 0.63 cm balloon diameter | N/A | 72 hrs continuous recording at time of injury | 71% immediate seizures | Immediate seizures; N/A | 9.5 ±2.5 seizures/rat in 72 hrs | 34.5 ±4 s | N/A | Mountney et al., 2013 | |
Rat: Sprague Dawley, adult male; hippocampal lesion with either copper or stainless steel wire insertion | N/A | Random 2-wk continuous recording intervals for up to 11 months postinjury, beginning 6 wks postinjury | 96% copper; 15% stainless steel | N/A | 3/day copper; 0.2/day stainless steel | 33.8 ±2.6 s copper; 25.7 ±0.7 s stainless steel | N/A | Kendirli et al., 2014 | |
Mouse: C57BL/6, adult male; peak overpressure of 14.6 psi, up to 3 blasts | N/A | 72 hrs continuous recording at 2 days post-TBI, and intermittent 48–72 hr recordings at monthly intervals for up to 10 months | 0% (single blast); 33% (double); 50% (triple) | N/A | 2.2 ±0.4 seizures/mouse (double) and 15 ±6.6 seizures/mouse (triple) during observation period | 39 ±4 s (>30 days post-TBI) | N/A | Bugay et al., 2020 | |
Cortical Undercut | |||||||||
Cat: adult both sexes; 3–4 mm depth and 13–15 mm distance | N/A | Not described | 40% | 2–3 hrs after undercut | N/A | 5–50 s | Observed interictal spikes, sharp waves, spike-wave, and polyspike-wave complexes in 60% of animals | Topolnik et al., 2003a; 2003b | |
Cat: adult both sexes; 3–4 mm depth and 13–15 mm distance | N/A | Intermittent weekly recording under anesthesia | 92% | N/A | N/A | N/A | Low-frequency spike-waves and polyspike-wave complexes observed intermingled with fast 10–20 Hz runs in all injured cats | Nita et al., 2006 | |
Mouse - C57BL/6, adult male; 1.2 mm depth and 1-2 mm distance | Increased susceptibility to PTZ-induced seizures at 15 days post-TBI | Continuous recording for 50 or 90 days post-TBI | 50% | 17-34 days | 0.17 ± 0.17 seizures/day | 8-18 s | Epileptic spikes observed in 71.4% of mice | Ping and Jin, 2016a |
ECoG = Electrocorticography.