ReviewTransgenerational Epigenetic Effects on Brain Functions
Section snippets
Routes for Transgenerational Transmission of Environmental Effects
In classical genetics, individual traits and features are inherited by transfer of chromosomal DNA sequences through the germline. However, this concept is now recognized to be incomplete, because trait inheritance also occurs via nongenetic factors, in particular, through epigenetics (8). Epigenetic marks can propagate across generations via two routes: one that is independent of the germline and implicates behavioral/social transmission and another that fully depends on the germline 22, 23.
Potential Mechanisms for Germline Epigenetic Transmission
If acquired traits and associated epigenetic marks can be inherited via the germline, epigenetic changes must first be established in germ cells, then transferred to the embryo. However, most epigenetic marks are reset during sexual reproduction. Most of DNAme is erased by reprogramming during gametogenesis, presumably to confer totipotency to the embryo, then reestablished after fertilization 31, 32. Similarly, in the male germline, most HPTMs are lost when histones are replaced by protamines
Major Examples of Germline Transgenerational Epigenetic Effects
Although the molecular mechanisms for transgenerational transmission of epigenetic marks exist in the germline, solid evidence for transgenerational epigenetic inheritance in mammals is still scarce. The following section summarizes the best examples relevant to brain development and psychiatric disorders to date. Other examples related to metabolism or environmental chemicals have recently been reviewed elsewhere 9, 60.
Conclusions and Outlook
Recognizing the potential involvement of epigenetic processes in the expression and inheritance of behaviors represents a major step forward in the understanding of complex brain functions. A transgenerational dimension to how environmental factors may influence epigenetic processes in both brain and germ cells adds an important layer of complexity to gene×environment interactions. An obvious evolutionary advantage of epigenetic inheritance over classical inheritance is that adaptive responses
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